Download CHAPTER 6: LEARNING

PSYCHOLOGY
PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Chapter 6
LEARNING
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
Section 4: The PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
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Chapter 6
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Section 1- Classical Conditioning
 Journaling
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 Stimulus- Something that triggers a
response. For example, touching a hot surface
would be the stimulus to remove your hand
from that surface. Anything that elicits or
affects a behavioral response
 Conditioning- learning that involves
stimulus-response connections, in which the
response is conditional on the stimulus
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Ivan Pavlov ( 1849-1936)
 Dogs learn to associate one thing with another when
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food is involved
Was interested in the relationship between the nervous
system and digestion- was studying salivation
Discovered that dogs did not always wait until they had
received meat to start salivating. Ex- they salivate in
response to the clinking of food trays, or when the
assistants entered the laboratories
Why?
Dogs learned from experience that these events mean
food was coming
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 Pavlov wanted to know if the dogs could learn to
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salivate in response to any stimulus that signaled
meat
Set out to show that he could train his dogs to salivate
in response to any stimulus he picked
Stimulus= ringing of a bell
Rang the bell then put meat powder on dogs tongues
Dogs salivate in response to the meat powder placed
on tongues
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 Repeats process several times
 Changes the procedure- rings the bell and doesn’t
follow with meat powder
 What happens?
 The dogs salivated anyway, learned to salivate in
response to only the bell
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 Pavlov’s Experiment
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI
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Chapter 6
Section 1: Classical Conditioning
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IMPORTANT TERMS
Terms that are important in understanding
classical conditioning:
 Unconditioned stimulus (US) – a stimulus that
causes a response that is automatic, not learned
 Unconditioned response (UR) – the response
that is automatic, not learned
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Chapter 6
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Question: What are the principles of classical conditioning?
IMPORTANT TERMS (continued)
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – a previously
neutral stimulus that, because of pairing with
an unconditioned stimulus, now causes a
conditioned response
 Conditioned Response (CR) – a learned
response to a stimulus that was previously
neutral or meaningless
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 What were the unconditioned stimulus,
unconditioned response, conditioned response,
and conditioned stimulus in Pavlov’s
experiment?
 Write in your notes!
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 US= meat powder
 UR= salivate
 CS= ringing bell
 CR= salivate
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Adapting to the Environment
 Classical conditioning helps organisms adapt to their
environment:
 Taste Aversion
 Extinction
 Spontaneous Recovery
 Generalization and Discrimination
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 Taste Aversion- learned avoidance of a
particular food
 Eating too much ice cream at once: Ice cream
(US), that caused the nausea (UR). As a result
even the thought of ice cream serves as a CS
that can make you feel nauseous (CR)
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Extinction
When a conditioned stimulus is no longer followed by an
unconditioned stimulus it eventually looses its ability to
bring about a conditioned response
 The conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer causes the
conditioned response (CR) to occur
 Pavlov found that eventually the ringing of the bell
followed by no meat caused the dogs to eventually stop
salivating- the conditioned response has been
extinguished
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Spontaneous Recovery
 When organisms display responses that were
extinguished earlier
 A rest period takes place (the dogs have not
heard the bell for two or three days)
 Then when they hear the bell again, they
salivate-the response is back but weaker (less
saliva)
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Generalization and Discrimination
 Generalization- the act of responding in the
same ways to stimuli that seem to be similar
even if the stimuli are not identical
 Ice cream caused taste aversion- Feel the same
way about ice cream of any flavor even if the first
one that made you nauseous was chocolate
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 Discrimination- the act of responding
differently to stimuli that are not similar to
each other
 After taste aversion to ice cream (which was
chocolate) you will not have the same reaction to
chocolate pudding, chocolate cake, choc. milk, etc.
 Able to discriminate between the two because they
are very different from each other
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Applications of Classical Conditioning
 Classical conditioning can help people overcome
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fears
Flooding- person is exposed to harmless stimulus
until fear responses to that stimulus are extinguished
Fear of heights- taken to tops of tall buildings
Effective but very unpleasant
Psychologists prefer a different method…
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 Systematic desensitization- people are taught
relaxation techniques then while they are relaxed they
are exposed gradually to the stimulus they fear
 Goal is to teach the person how to cope with their
fears
 Ex: someone who fears snakes is shown pictures of
snakes, once the person can do this without losing the
feeling of relaxation he or she might be shown a real
snake from a distance, then after this the snake will be
brought closer and closer
 Eventually the point is to no longer fear snakes
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 Systematic desensitization takes longer than flooding
but it not as unpleasant for the person
 Counterconditioning- reducing fear by repeatedly
pairing a pleasant stimulus with a fearful one,
counteracting the fear
 Child is afraid of a rabbit. Give cookies while the
rabbit comes closer and closer. Eventually able to pet
the rabbit while eating cookies. Pleasure at eating
cookies cancels out the fear of rabbits.
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
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OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Another type of learning besides classical conditioning
is operant conditioning
 Operant Conditioning- People and animals learn to do
certain things because of the results of what they do
 Learn from the consequences of their actions
 There are both positive consequences and negative
ones
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 In classical conditioning the responses are often
involuntary (salivating)
 In operant conditioning responses are voluntary (we
have control over them)
 Example: studying- you do it because of its
consequences, usually better grades. It is
conditioned.
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B.F. Skinner- “Skinner Box”
Rat in the box is deprived of food. When a lever is pressed
some food pellets would drop into the box. The rat
accidentally pressed the lever and food came out. Soon the
rat learned that its behavior was producing the food.
Reinforcement – the process by which a stimulus
increases the chances that the preceding behavior will occur
again
After several reinforced responses the rat pressed the level
quickly and frequently until it was no longer hungry
Teaching your dog to sit with treats works this way
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Types of Reinforcement:
 Primary- reinforcers that function due to the
biological makeup of the organism. (Ex: Food,
warmth)
 Secondary- reinforcers in which their value is
something that must be learned (money, attention)
 Positive- increase the frequency of the behavior they
follow when they are applied
 Negative- increase the frequency of the behavior that
follows when they are removed
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Positive Reinforcers
 Different reinforcers work with different people
 This is because we all enjoy different things
 What serves as a reinforcer one time may not work
at a later time (Ex: food. Once a person is full, food
will no longer have an effect)
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Negative Reinforcers
 Increase the frequency of the behavior that follows
when the negative reinforcer is removed
 Unpleasant, uncomfortable stimulus- negative
reinforcer- that we act on to make it disappear
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Examples of negative reinforcers:
Before heading out for a day at the beach, you slather
on sunscreen in order to avoid getting sunburned.
You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen in
order to avoid getting in a fight with your roommate.
On Monday morning, you leave the house early in
order to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for
class.
In all of these we act on the negative stimulus so that it
doesn’t happen
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Rewards and Punishments
 Rewards increase the frequency of a behavior, like
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positive reinforcement
They are similar to positive reinforcers
Punishments are very different from negative reinforcers
Punishments are unwanted events that when they are
applied decrease the frequency of the behavior they
follow
The Big Bang Theory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=euINCrDbbD4&featu
re=related
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 Reinforcement increases the behavior that
preceded it.
 Punishment decreases the behavior that
preceded it.
 Pg. 138- chart
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Chapter 6
Section 2: Operant Conditioning
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 Shaping- a way of teaching complex behaviors in
which one first reinforces small steps in the right
direction
 Ex: Learning to ride a bike
 Programmed Learning – assumes that any task can be
broken down into small steps that can be shaped
individually and combined to form the more
complicated whole
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Chapter 6
Section 3: Cognitive Factors in Learning
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 Cognitive psychologists want to understand what
people and animals know because of learning
 They see learning as purposeful, not mechanical
 Two kinds of learning involve cognitive factors:
 Latent Learning
 Observational Learning
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Latent Learning
 Learning that occurs without reinforcement
 Knowledge that is hidden or latent until you have
reason to use it
 You know where the gym, main office, cafeteria all
are
 You were not reinforced to create a layout of the
school in your head, you did this on your own
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Observational Learning
 People learn by watching and imitating others
 Albert Bandura
 Observation learning accounts for much human learningchildren learn to speak, eat, and play by observing their
parents and others
 TV is another major source of observational learning
 Viewing violence on TV may lead to real life violence
 While it may also be that people who choose to watch
violent TV programs are more likely to be violent in the
first place
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Chapter 6
Section 4: Learning to Learn
PSYCHOLOGY
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PQ4R Method: Learning to Learn
 Students learn more when they take an active
approach to their learning
 One approach- the PQ4R method
 6 steps…
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Chapter 6
Section 4: Learning to Learn
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STEPS OF THE PQ4R METHOD OF LEARNING
 PREVIEW – getting a general picture of what is covered before
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reading a chapter
QUESTION – something in particular that we want to learn
READ – reading the material with the purpose of finding
answers
REFLECT – an important way to understand and remember the
material read. Relate new information to old information or
your own life.
RECITE- Saying things out loud (ABC song)
REVIEW- repeat and reread to know
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 Homework: Classical and operant conditioning
worksheet
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