Download Ll.RY NOTES - LEARNli`IG o - King`s Psychology Network

INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY 201-202
Dr. Rosalyn M . King
SU.Ml\-Ll.RY NOTES - LEARNli'IG
0Yerview
,.
The changes produced by karning are uot always positive in nature. People can acquire bad habits as well as
good ones. In some cases. the results of learning can be devastating.
•
There are 4 basic forms of learning: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, obsexvational learning and
cognitive processes.
Classical Conditionin2
,.
The pairing of automatic responses with new stimuli. The responses performed are generally involuntary.
They are elicited by a specific unconditioned stimulus, and later by a conditioned stimulus, in an automatic
manner.
Types of conditioning include:
Delaved - most effective method for establihsing a conditioned response. Presenring the CS while the UCDS
is still present.
Trace - The CS precedes the UCS.
Simultaneous - The CS and UCS begin and end at the same time.
Backward - The UCS precedes the CS.
Factors associated with classical conditioning:
Extinction - the gradual disappearance of a learned response.
Recomlitioning - a repairing of the UCS and CS to recover a previously conditioned re=>i:ionse.
Spont:rnCQUS Recoven·- Reappearance of a weakened conditioned response upon reinstatement of a CS after
the response l.ias become e:->tinct.
Responding to Similariries and Differences in Stimuli:
Stimulus Generalization - the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to elicit simil;ir conditioned reponses.
Examples: Child stung by a bee: tratlic lights: racial stereotyping.
Stimulus Discrimination - a process of learning to respond to cerrain stimuli. but nor to others. Responding
differently to similar stimuli. Examples: A dog wagging irs tail vs. a growling dog. Prejudicial behavior
toward a person or group.
Practical Applications of Classical Conditionini:
o
Jmplo~ive Therapv - a technique in which a pateient suffering from a specific fear is made to imagine the
feared object or .:vent. Because no actual harm then follows. these images and thoughcs gradually lose tl.ieir
capacity to dicit emotional reactions.
Flooding - .:liminating conditioned foars by e:->posing an individual to tear - inducing objects or events. Since
uo uuconditiont:d stimulus tl.ien follows. t::\1irlction of fears eventually tak.:s place.
~>
~v<:t..!:r.:.:t:c n::~e;~s'.tt::-.tfor.
- a ;;:-0~1::s~in: t1.:.::illlique
cles~g!.!<!<l
to replac.: au_.,,;iety wiih a relaxa:ion response.
Has proven .:ffective.
Operant Conditioning
o
In operant conditioning an organism is placed in an enYironment and then given unlimited oppormuity to
respond while in that siruation. Responses are called operants because the organism operates on its
I
Page 2) Summary - Learning
environment to produce consequences --punishing or rewarding stimuli. Operant learning involves controlling
the consequences of behavior.
The four basic procedures used: reinforcement (positive and negative), punishment omission training.
(Definitions already provided)
Effects of Punishment
Harmful Effects
1.
2.
Can create strong fear which can interfere with the effectiveness of subsequent performmce.
Can arouse anger or hostility.
3.
Indicates what behaviors should be avoided but provides little information about what actions would
be more effective in a given situation.
Conditions to be met for punishment to he effective:
1.
2.
3.
..J..
The intensity of the aversive stimulus event, or punisher, must be relatively strong.
The punisher must follow the undesirable behavior immediately. Delay weakens the impact of the
punisher.
Punishment must be consistently applied.
The probability of punishment must be high.
2 Techniques Used to Mold Behavior
o
Shaping - a technique used to get behavior closer and closer to the desin:d behavior. Subje:.:ts receiYe
a reward for each small step toward a final goal.
•
Chaining - a technique that establishes a sequence of responses, which leads to a reward following the
the final response in the chain. Example: Used by trainers of dolphins and whales in water routines at
Sea World.
Cognitive Aspects of Operant Conditioning
s
Learned Helplessness - when nothing an organism does is rewarded or reinforced and the organism
gives up. Even when the situation changes they tend to remain in a passive state. Plays a role in
depression. Organism lea.ms a general expectation of helplessness.
Applications of Oper.mt Conditioning
o
o
~
t>
Computer Assisted Instruction
Biofoedback Training
Token Economies
Behavior Modification
Observational Learning
6
We learn vicariously by watching the actions of other persons and the consequences they experience.
"
Bandura outlines -1- elements to observational learning: I) the learner must pay attention to the role model.
2) The learner needs clear explanations. 3) The learner produces the desired behavior with practice and
receives feedback. -1-) The behavior needs to be reinforced in order for it to continue.
Page 3) Summary - Learning
o
Key factors in observational learning: attention (the e:\1ent to which we focus on others' behavior); retention
(our ability to retain a representarion of other's behavior in memory); production processes (our ability to
actually perform the actions we observe); and motivation (our need for the actions we witness: their
usefulness to us).
Cognitive Processes in Learning
•
The study of the thought processes that underlie learning. Focuses on the unseen internal mental processes that
are occurring within a person. Cannot be directly observed. Involves complex tasks such as problem-solving,
concept learning, perception and remembering. Uses metacognition, metalearning and metamemocy - the
monitoring of cognitive processes (cognitive monitoring).
Elements of the Coinitive Process: 1) Behavior - reflection of mental processes; 2) Reinforcement - Source
of feedback reducing uncertainty and leading to understanding. 3) Active processing of information; 4) Prior
knowledge plays important role; and 5) Structures of knowledge and the processes that create it.
Applications of Cognitive Leaming Theories
I. Concept learning - seeing the whole category of ideas, objects, people or experiences.
2. Problem solving - formulating new answers. going beyond the simple application of previously learnt:d
rules to create a solution.
3. Creativity/Imaginative Thinking - brainstorming. encouraging divergent thinking .
..+. Critical thinking- evaluating conclusions by logically and systematically e:-.:amining the problem. the
evidence and the solution. ·
5. Teaching for transfer - when something previously learned influences currelll learning (positive and
negative transfer). Technically called proactive and retroactive interforence.
Other Forms of learning
e
11
Latent - hidden or concealed. Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but not readily demonstrated until
reinforcement is provided.
Insight learning - a sudden perception of relationships among elements of the "perceptual field" permitting
the solution of a problem.
Concept Leaming - a symbol that stands for a group of objects, ideas. or events with a common purpose.
Research Finding'.'! on Leaming
o
o
Meaningfulness of Material and Leaming: ·The more meaningful the content. the more easily it is masterc;:d
and retaint:d.
Massed vs. Distributed Practice. in massed practice the learner is required to master material in single
In distributed practice, blO\:ks of practice are initiated with blocks of rest. Findings re\·eal distributed
practice as a concept to be superior to massed practice.
~ession.
Whole vs. Part Learnin::. Wnole learning is superior in short tasks. In longer tasks. part learning or learning
in parts is superior.
The Role of :\foth·at ional Variables
Introduction to Psyc/lology 201
Dr. Rosalyn M. King
51
52
---.
~c;<;,O
LEARNING
CONCEPT MAP
Rl
Behavior
----
Consequences
su.'Os'-'\.v.'-'o"
\.ea~{\\\\~
s\\'{00 \u.s
c:\'3\\0\1
Thorndike
VJ
Mental Processes & Learning
N
~:
,.
Habituation
Imprinting
Tolman
Cognitive Maps