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Participant Observation - An important complementary tool to interviewing, especially in understanding the context of what people say in the interviews - Essential in checking and evaluating key-informant data - It was found out by anthropologists that one can get more information by using participant observation i.e., participating in the native's activities - Rationale is to see and interpret the world from the people's perspective through intensive interaction (ket yammeich) - On the other hand, participant observation shouldn’t become manipulative in the sense that you participate in a community's activities only to extract information. Two Purposes: - To engage in activities appropriate to the situation - To observe the activities, people and physical aspects of the situation Difference between ordinary participant and participant observer Ordinary Participant Participant Observer Subjective manner (outsider) Outsider and insider (alternatively) Often takes experience for granted Introspective Culturally sensitive Almost never records details of routine Records what he/she observes in a more activities systematic manner. Memory cannot be trusted Types of Participation Passive – participant observer is at the scene of action but does not participate or interact with the people involved. He/She is merely a "bystander or spectator". Active – do what other people are doing not merely to gain acceptance but to more fully learn the cultural rules for behaviour. What type to use depends on the situation and the researcher should be sensitive enough to know when to use what kind of participant observation. Context Drawing - Human interaction always takes place in a certain setting. - An ethnographic session always aims to answer the following questions, in relation to topic of research thinking WHO is saying WHAT to WHOM and WHY? doing Thinking, saying, doing are separated because what people say they do may not be necessarily the same thing that they actually do. " Let me help" Easier analogy for Contextualizing "Greetings to different people" "Clothes we wear" The outcome on the use of the ethnographic techniques depends on the personal qualities and character of the ethnographer. Some are key observers while others fail to notice details. Others have no difficulty in relating with people while others have difficulty adapting to new situations. RESEARCHERS need to be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses and maximize them to her/his advantage. Sources: Campbell. O. et al 1999 Social Science methods for research on reproductive health. UNDP/UNFPA/World Bank Special Programme of Research. WHO Hardon, A. et al 2000 Applied Health Research Manual on Anthropology of Health and Health Care. 3rd Edition. Het Spinuis Publishers, The Netherlands Pelto, P.J. and Pelto. P.H> 1999 Anthropological Research. The structure of inquiry. 2nd edition (Digital Reprinting), Cambridge University Press How to improve skills in participant observation: 1. Observe and record small events 2. From reviewing the records one can discover observational biases – this will arouse awareness of ones own biases 3. While reviewing one can start becoming more systematic in writing the information Ethnographic Recording - It consists of field notes, audio or video tape recordings, photographs, artifacts (material objects) and any other documents. - From among these, Field Notes form the core of ethnographic record. - Field notes record observations, conversations, interpretations and suggestions for future information to be gathered. Some pointers on field notes taking/writing: What to write in field notes - Primarily observations of the events, activities - Records of interviews - Materials copied from other documents such as books and journals - Write up of experiences, feelings, reservations, additional questions arising out of the fieldwork including mistakes When to write field notes - Observe whether it is appropriate to write field notes or not particularly during solemn events. It is more useful to do field notes as soon as it is convenient and proper. How to write field notes - Notes are not necessarily detailed but should contain enough substantial information that will help in writing a report later. - It is best to record observation simply as "The informant said that….." - The other way to do is to write quotations – what people actually said - In writing observations, fieldworker should be aware enough to write it as he/she sees it rather than writing her own inferences (forming an opinion). - Labeling/Judging should be avoided. "He did an inappropriate action." - Use of cover terms that do not give a description or picture of the event has little meaning. - When judgments are inserted in field reports, the standard of comparison on which the judgment is based should also be inserted. "The house is in ruins in relation to other houses." How to systematize field notes - Learn to summarize observations. At the end of the day, observations can be treated like a diary with dates, places, names of people and general information about the research site. - Notes should be done in such a way that it serves as trigger to released remembered information. This can be expanded at the end of each day, together with the analysis and interpretation of information gathered. - Draw up tables of contents and indexes in order to be able to retrieve information quickly when you need them. Sources: Campbell. O. et al 1999 Social Science methods for research on reproductive health. UNDP/UNFPA/World Bank Special Programme of Research. WHO Hardon, A. et al 2000 Applied Health Research Manual on Anthropology of Health and Health Care. 3rd Edition. Het Spinuis Publishers, The Netherlands Pelto, P.J. and Pelto. P.H> 1999 Anthropological Research. The structure of inquiry. 2nd edition (Digital Reprinting), Cambridge University Press