Download Lesson One

Lesson One
1. What is participant observation? Discuss some of its advantages and
disadvantages as a research method. Discuss an example of a problem that
might be studied using this method.
Participant observation is a research strategy in sociology where the researcher aims to
gain intimate access with a given group of individuals. This strategy includes
participating, interviewing and observing. The researcher will involve himself or herself
intensively with the subjects that are being studied, in their natural environment and
participate directly along with observing their behavior. For instance, a researcher could
study the tribal practices of aboriginal people by participating in their ceremonies and
interviewing people in the tribe.
Researchers that perform this type of research want to understand subjective meanings,
personal relationships and the process of social life. They hope to uncover the underlying
pattern for the individuals involved. Through this method, researchers get a detailed and
in-depth data that is usually not obtained by other research methods like surveys.
Participant observation is also used to get an initial idea of the research topic.
Participant observation is very useful for observing stigmatized behaviors or populations.
In these cases, the presence of the researcher may alter the behavior of the group. If the
researcher simply hands out surveys, the data obtained may not be very accurate.
However, if the researcher were to involve themselves in the group, conducting detailed
interviews, or long-term observations, he or she will be able to obtain much more
accurate data. Information on the homeless, transgender individuals and sex workers
were obtained primarily by participant observers. This method is also useful in studying
the actions of people rather then their attitudes. With surveys, it is possible for people to
intentionally or unintentionally to state their attitudes rather then their true behavior.
When questioned, majority of people will claim to be open minded and accepting toward
other cultures but when their behavior is closely studied, it becomes clear they socialize
mainly within their own group.
The major disadvantage of participant observation is that conclusions drawn from the
observations depend heavily on the interpretation of the researcher. The interpretation
depends on the researcher’s worldview. But, by conducting the same study again with
another researcher, it is possible to see if the same conclusions can be reached. The data
is collected from a small group of individuals and is not a random-sampling. Therefore,
the data may not necessarily be representative of the group. On the other hand, much
more data can be collected by participant observation.
A possible example of participant observation is the study of children of prostitutes of
Calcutta, India. The oscar winning documentary ‘Born into brothels’ deals with this
subject. A survey would not reveal much since the people working in the red-light district
would be very hesitant to talk to an outsider. But by befriending the people, the
filmmaker was able to reveal the life and conditions of the children.
Lesson Three
2. Distinguish between the social processes of exchange, cooperation,
competition, and conflict.
Exchange can be defined as a conscious interaction from which the involved parties
expect to be rewarded for their contribution. The contribution can be something physical
or something abstract. Examples for exchange include lending out a textbook for help on
homework. Exchanges can also be subtle, such as being cheered up by friends. This favor
is then repaid when the friend needs cheering up. In exchanges, there is a belief that the
person who is being helped is indebted to the person who is helping. This expectation is
called the norm of reciprocity. If this favor is not reciprocated, it is likely that the
relationship between the individuals would likely end on bad terms. Incase an individual
does not want to be indebted to another person the exchange can be declined. This way,
only relationships that are wanted will be cultivated. Exchange is one of most
fundamental processes of social interaction. An exchange relationship will continue only
when all the individuals involved feel that they are getting a fair reward from the
relationship. A fair reward does not necessarily mean an equal reward but rather it
depends on what the individuals involved perceive as fair.
Cooperation happens when a group of people comes together to work towards a common
goal. This is different from exchange in that the participants don’t expect a reward from
each other. People come together to cooperate because it would be other wise difficult for
one person to achieve the goal. Group sports are a good example for cooperation. In
games like soccer, the roles of the players are well defined. The defender stops goals
from the opposing team whereas the forwards try to score for the team. The forwards tend
to have greater glory for scoring the goals compared to the defenders for blocking goals.
However, the entire team works together to defeat the opposing team.
Competition is the struggle over scarce resources that are regulated by shared rules.
Competition occurs when goals are mutually exclusive or when there isn’t sufficient
amount of a certain good for everyone. There are rules that clearly specify the conditions
for victory and defeat. It is important that the rules be followed for a fair victory. There is
usually a higher authority to make sure that the participants follow the rules set. Conflict
may occur if these rules are not followed. Most of social interactions in modern society
have some element of competition. Examples include sports, academics, jobs and finding
a suitable marriage partner. Competition may motivate people to achieve more in sports
or academics. But it may also destroy personal relationships when competition is between
friends or close family. Compared to exchange and cooperation, when people compete
they usually set against each other rather working with one another.
Conflict is a struggle over scarce resources that are not regulated by shared rules. Conflict
may occur when the rules that regulate competition break down and are not followed. At
this stage, no rules are followed and as a consequence conflicts can be dangerous since it
may lead to harm or destruction of rivals. Conflicts tend to divide the group rather then
the other social interactions discussed above which bring people together. However, if the
conflict is with someone who is outside the group, it can bring the group together to fight
against the common enemy. Governments and other people in high authority often
exploit this side effect to unite people.