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STUDY GUIDE
GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY (PSY-200)
The following terms are to serve as a guide to your understanding of the class lectures. Keep in mind as you read that not
all of these terms will necessarily be covered in class, but it is important that you understand what each term on the list
means. Most terms will come directly from your text; others that are indicated by an asterisk (*) will come from lecture
notes. Other terms may also be added as we progress through the semester. You will find that your studying will be more
effective if you spend a little time each day to refresh your learning rather than trying to cram the night before the test. It is
also helpful to have read the chapters before the class lecture. This list of terms should not be used as a substitute for
reading the text chapters!
TEST I
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology defined
Behavior and Mental Processes
Philosophy and Biology * - The historical roots of psychology.
Fields of Study in Psychology
Psychologists by:
Sex
Country
Race
Trephining
Renee Descartes
Franz Josef Gall and Phrenology
John Locke and tabula rasa
Johann Weyer * - Often called the Father of Modern Psychiatry.
Wilhelm Wundt
Introspection * - To look within; to examine one’s thoughts, feelings, or sensations.
Structuralism * - The school of thought concerned with analyzing perceptions, sensations, and personal experience into
basic elements.
William James
Functionalism * - The school of psychology concerned with how behavior and mental abilities help people adapt to their
environments. (today we have educational and industrial psychology)
Gestalt Psychology
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Max Wertheimer
Women in Psychology
Margaret Floy Washburn
Stetter Hollingsworth
Mary Calkins
Karen Horney
June Etta Downey
Anna Freud
Mamie Phipps Clark
Neuroscience Perspective
Psychodynamic Perspective
Sigmund Freud
Behavioral Perspective (stimulus-response)
John B. Watson
B.F. Skinner
Cognitive Perspective
Humanistic Perspective
Carl Rogers
Abraham Maslow
Key Issues
Nature-Nurture Issue
Conscious-Unconscious causes of behavior
Observable behavior-Internal mental processes
Free will-Determinism
Individual differences-universal principles
Scientific method
Hypothesis
Operational definition
Descriptive research
Archival research
Naturalistic observation
Survey research
Case study
Correlational research
Experimental vs. control group
Independent vs. dependent variable
Random assignment to condition
Significant outcome
Replication
Informed consent
Experimental bias
Placebo
Diffusion of responsibility (Bystander effect)
CHAPTER 2
NEUROSCIENCE AND BEHAVIOR
Neurons
Dendrite
Soma
Axon
Terminal buttons (axon terminals)
Myelin Sheath
Glial cells
Synapse
Resting state
Action potential
Resting potential * - The electrical charge of a neuron at rest.
Threshold * - The point at which a nerve impulse is triggered.
All-or-none law
Negative after potential * - A drop in electrical charge below the resting potential.
Neurotransmitters
“Agonists” (excitatory) * - Excite by mimicking the effects of a drug or blocking its reuptake. Some opiate drugs
produce a temporary “high” by amplifying sensations of arousal or pleasure.
“Antagonists” (inhibitory) * - Inhibit a neurotransmitter’s release decreasing likelihood that a neuron will fire.
Acetylcholine (Ach) * - The neurotransmitter released by neurons to activate muscles.
Curare * - A drug that competes with acetylcholine, causing paralysis.(antagonist)
Glutamate
Gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA)
Epinephrine
Dopamine (DA)
Serotonin
Endorphins
Neuron vs. Nerve * - Neurons are tiny individual cells; nerves are large bundles of axons and dendrites.
Neurilemma * - A layer of cells that forms a “tunnel” that damaged nerve fibers can follow as they repair themselves.
Central nervous system
Spinal chord
Sensory (afferent) neurons
Motor (efferent) neurons
Interneurons
Reflex Arc * - The simplest behavior, in which a stimulus provokes an
automatic response.
Peripheral nervous system
Somatic division
Autonomic division
Sympathetic division
Parasympathetic division
Endocrine system
Hormones
Oxytocin
Pituitary gland
Brain scanning techniques
Corpus callosum
Central core (“Old brain”)
Hind brain
Medulla
Pons
Cerebellum
Reticular formation
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Forebrain
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Limbic system
Cerebral cortex (“New brain”)
Corticalization * - Why humans are the most intelligent; an increase in the size and wrinkling of the cortex.
Lobes
Occipital
Temporal
Parietal
Frontal
Motor area
Sensory area
Somatasensory area
Auditory area
Visual area
Association area
Phineas Gage
Apraxia
Aphasia
Broca’s
Wernicke’s
Agnosia *- (Mindblindness) Inability to identify seen objects.
Facial Agnosia * - Inability to perceive familiar faces.
Neuroplasticity
Hemisphere specialization (left/right)
Corpus callosum
Split brain
Lateralization (men vs. women)
CHAPTER 4
STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Consciousness (definition)
Behaviorism * - Systematically avoided studying consciousness during the early part of the last century.
“Larks and Owls”
Eugene Aserinsky (1952) * - Using his son Arnold, was the first to study REM sleep.
Electroencephalograph
Yawning * - Stretches your neck muscles and increases your heart rate, which increases your alertness.
Adenosine * - During the time we are awake, our active brain produces this chemical, which inhibits certain neurons,
making us sleepy. (Caffeine blocks adenosine’s activity.) During sleep, adenosine concentration declines.
Sleep
Microsleep
Sleep Deprivation Psychosis
Stages of sleep
Awake (Beta waves)
Relaxed (Alpha waves)
Stage 1 (Small irregular waves)
Stage 2 (Sleep spindles)
Stage 3 (Some Delta waves)
Stage 4 (Mostly Delta waves)
Somnambulation * - sleepwalking
Hypnic jerks (myoclonus) * - A reflex muscle twitch throughout the body that often occurs as one is asleep.
Hypnogogic sensations * - Sensations of falling or floating.
Paradoxical Sleep (REM)* - Body in internally aroused and internally calm.
REM Vs. NREM
Genital arousal during REM
REM Rebound
Dreaming
Unconscious wish fulfillment theory
Latent content
Manifest content
Dream symbols
Dreams-for survival-theory
Activation-Synthesis theory
Sleep Disturbances
Insomnia
Tryptophan * - A sleep-promoting (increases serotonin) amino acid found in starchy foods, especially
baked potatoes. Also found in cookies, bread, pasta, oatmeal, pretzels, bagels, and dry cereal.
Night terrors
Somnambulism
Narcolepsy * - 1 in 2000 sufferers. Associated with a relative absence of a hypothalamic neural center that
produces a neurotransmitter called hypocretin. Can also result in catalplexy, a sudden temporary
paralysis.
Sleep Apnea * - Breathing stops for twenty seconds to two minutes (Afflicts approximately 1 in 20 people, mostly
overweight men.)
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS or “crib death”) * - The sudden, unexplained death of an apparently healthy
infant (1 out of every 500 babies), believed to be caused by apnea. Babies are three times more likely to
die from SIDS if they live in the same house with smokers!
Circadian Rhythms
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)
Daydreams
Hypnosis
Meditation
Mantra
Psychoactive drugs
Tolerance
Addictive drugs
Biologically based
Psychologically based
Stimulant drugs
Smoking * - Increases epinephrine in the blood and increases dopamine in
the synapses.
Depressant drugs
Alcohol
Binge-drinking
Rohypnol (“Date rape drug”)
Narcotics
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic drugs
Marijuana
MDMA (“Ecstasy”)
LSD
TEST II
CHAPTER 5
LEARNING
Learning (definition)
Habituation
Conditioning
Associative learning * - Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical
conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
Reinforcement * - Any event that increases the probability that a response will occur again.
Respondent Reinforcement * - Reinforcement that occurs when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a conditioned
stimulus.
Antecedents * - Events that precede a response.
Consequences * - Effects that follow a response.
Classical (Respondent) Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Neutral stimulus
Unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned stimulus
Unconditioned response
Conditioned response
Acquisition * - The period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced.
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination
Vicarious classical conditioning * - Conditioning brought about by watching another person react to a particular stimulus.
Expectancy * - An anticipation concerning future events or relationships.
John B. Watson
Little Albert
Conditioned emotional response (CER) * - A learned emotional reaction to a previously neutral stimulus.
Operant (instrumental) conditioning
E.L. Thorndike
“Law of Effect”
Reward vs. Reinforcer
B.F. Skinner
Response contingent
Shaping
Successive approximations * - A series of steps or ever-closer matches to a desired response pattern.
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Cost Response * - Having to give up privileges as punishment.
Reinforcers
Primary
Secondary
Tokens
Premack Principle (prepotent responses) * - Any high-frequency response can be used to reinforce a low-frequency
response; (“Grandma’s law”).
Effects of immediate and delayed reinforcement
Superstitious behavior * - A behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually
unnecessary.
Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous vs. partial reinforcement (Intermittent)
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval
Stimulus control training
Punishment
Response cost * - Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.
Side effects of punishment
How to punish (if you must) *
-Don’t use punishment if you can discourage misbehavior in other ways.
-Apply punishment during, or immediately after, misbehavior.
-Use the minimum punishment necessary to suppress misbehavior.
-Be consistent.
-Expect anger from a punished person.
-Punish with kindness and respect.
Two factor learning * - Learning that involves both classical and operant conditioning.
Feedback (KR * - Knowledge of results) Information returned to a person about the effects a response has had.
Biological constraints (“Instinctive drift”) * - The tendency for learned responses to shift toward innate response patterns.
Comparing classical and operant conditioning
Cognitive learning theory
Latent learning
Cognitive map
Observational learning (modeling)
“Memes”* - Transmitted cultural elements such as ideas, fashions, habits, and slang that come about through imitation.
Albert Bandura (Social cognitive approach)
MEMORY
CHAPTER 6
Memory (definition)
Three basic memory processes
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Three-system memory theory (Sensory, Short-term, Long-term)
Sensory memory
Iconic memory
Echoic memory
Selective attention
Short-term memory
Magic number, 7, + or - 2
18 second rule * - Short term memories are gone without rehearsal.
Chunks
Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal
Mnemonics
Working memory
Central executive
Visual store
Verbal store
Episodic buffer
Long-term memory
Serial position effect
Primacy effect
Recency effect
Declarative memory
Procedural memory
Semantic memory
Episodic memory
Semantic networks
Redintegration * - The process of reconstructing an entire complex memory after observing or remembering only a part of
it.
Engram
Hippocampus
Amygdala
Long-term potentiation * - Increased neural readiness for impulse
transmission.
Consolidation
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Recall
Recognition
Levels-of-processing theory
Explicit memory
Implicit memory
Priming
Flashbulb memories
Source amnesia
Rehearsal
Constructive processes
Schemas
Eidetic imagery * - Often called photographic memory. More common in childhood, with about 8 children out of 100 having
eidetic images. Usually do not have better than average long-term memory.
Misinformation effect * - Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
Repressed memories
False memories
Autobiographical memory
Hermann Ebbinghaus’ “Curve of forgetting”
Encoding failure
Decay
Spaced vs. massed practice (spacing effect) * - Memory is more efficient with alternating study periods with brief rests.
Those who learn quickly also tend to forget quickly!
Cue-dependent forgetting
State-dependent learning * - Memory influenced by one’s bodily state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval.
Improved memory occurs when the bodily states match.
Mood -congruent memory * - The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
Alzheimer’s disease
Amnesia
Retrograde
Anterograde
Korsakoff’s syndrome
CHAPTER 8
MOTIVATION AND EMOTION
Motivation (definition)
Instincts
Primary motives * - Innate motives based on biological needs.
Secondary motives * - Motives based on learned needs, drives, and goals.
Stimulus motives * - Innate needs for stimulation and information.
Need * - An internal deficiency that may energize behavior.
Drive
Motivational model *
Need
Drive
Response
Goal (need reduction)
Homeostasis
Arousal approaches
Inverted U function * - A curve, roughly the shape of an upside-down
U, that relates performance to levels of arousal. If we set aside individual differences, performance is
usually best when arousal is moderate.
Yerkes-Dodson law * - If a task is relatively simple, the optimal level of
arousal will be high. When a task is more complex, the best performance occurs at lower levels of
arousal.
Incentives * - Positive and negative environmental stimuli that motivate behavior
Internal push vs. external pull (needs vs. incentives)
Cognitive approaches to motivation
Intrinsic motivation
Extrinsic motivation
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy
Obesity
Body mass index
Hunger
Glucose * - The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the
major source of energy for body tissues.
Appetite hormones *
Insulin * - Hormone secreted by the Pancreas; controls blood glucose.
Increases in Insulin will lower
blood sugar and increase hunger.
Orexin * - Hunger triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus
Ghrelin * - Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain
PYY * - Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” message to brain
Glucose * - The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When
its level is low, we feel hunger.
Hypoglycemia * - Below-normal blood sugar level.
Lateral hypothalamus
Ventromedial hypothalamus
Weight set point
Metabolism
Hyperphagia * - Over-eating.
Satiety * - Feeling full or satisfied.
Leptin
Anorexia Nervosa
Bulimia Nervosa
“Externals” * - Individuals whose eating is triggered more by the sight of food rather than an internal condition of hunger.
(“See Food”)
Carbohydrates * - Tend to be comfort foods because of elevated Serotonin levels.
Taste aversions * - An active dislike for a particular food usually based on classical conditioning.
Weight discrimination * - Stronger against women than men. Studies indicate that there is greater discrimination by weight
that gender or race.
Thirst
Intracellular * - Caused by excess of salt consumption.
Extracellular * - Caused by sweating, vomiting, diarrhea, or bleeding.
Alfred Kinsey * - Controversial Indiana University biologist who studied people’s sexual practices extensively in the 1940's
and 50's.
Masters and Johnson * - Husband and wife team who published research on the sexual response cycle after observing
and filming people involved in various sexual activities.
Sexual response cycle
Excitement
Plateau
Orgasm
Resolution
Refractory period * - A short time period after orgasm in which a male is unable to reach orgasm again.
Androgens
Estrogens and progesterone
Fantasy * - Important to human sexual behavior. Men tend to fantasize more about sex than women. Women are more
likely to fantasize about the romantic aspects than the physical act itself.
Masturbation
Heterosexuality
Double standard
Premarital sex
Marital Sex
Extramarital sex
Homosexuality
Bisexuality
Transsexualism
Need for achievement (McClelland)
Need for affiliation
Need for power
Emotions * - A response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behavior, and (3)
conscious experience.
* When people experience positive emotions, the left hemisphere of the brain becomes more electrically active. When
people experience negative emotions the right hemisphere becomes more electrically active.
Facial feedback effect * - The tendency for our brains to read our facial expressions and produce emotions accordingly.
Adaptation level phenomenon * - Our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a “neutral”
level defined by our prior experience.
Relative deprivation * - The perception that we are worse off than others with whom we compare ourselves. “I cried
because I had no shoes,” states a Persian saying, “until I met a man who had no feet.”
Anger * - Two ways to control:
-Wait, don’t do anything. Yes, even count to ten (or one hundred)!
-Calm yourself by doing something totally opposite of what caused your anger. Do something that you enjoy:
playing an instrument, exercising, gardening, etc.
Theories of emotion
Common sense
James-Lange (1884-1885)
Cannon-Bard (1927)
Schacter-Singer (Schacter’s Two-Factory Theory, 1971)
TEST III
CHAPTER 11
HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY: STRESS, COPING, AND WELL-BEING
Health psychology (definition)
Pscychoneuroimmunology (PNI)
Stress (definition)
Distress * - Negative or undesirable stress.
Eustress * - Positive or desirable stress.
Cataclysmic events
Personal Stressors
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
Background stressors
Psychophysiological disorders (Psychosomatic disorders)
Hypochondriasis * - A preoccupation with minor bodily problems and the presence of illnesses that appear to be imaginary.
Stress appraisal
Primary * - Deciding if a situation is relevant to oneself and if it is a threat.
Secondary * - Deciding how to cope with a threat or challenge.
Hans Selye
General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm
Resistance
Exhaustion
Burnout * - A job-related condition of mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion related to the exhaustion stage of the
GAS.
Epinephrine - stress hormone
Lymphocyte B * - Found in bone marrow and releases antibodies that fight
bacterial infections.
Lymphocyte T * - Forms in Thymus and other lymphatic tissues; attacks
cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.
Coping
Emotion focused
Problem focused
Avoidant coping
Defense mechanisms
Emotional insulation
Martin Seligman - Learned Helplessness
External/Internal locus of control
Hardiness
Commitment
Challenge
Control
Social Support
Meyer Friedman and Ray Rosenman
Type A behavior pattern
Type B behavior pattern
Type D behavior (Johan Denollet)
Psychological aspects of cancer
Smoking
-Every cigarette smoked takes 12 minutes of your life.
-Each year throughout the world, tobacco kills 4 million of its 1.2billion customers.
-The World Health Organization estimates the number of annual death rates will soon reach 10 million, meaning
that half a billion people alive today will be killed by tobacco.
-Smokers have higher rates of depression, chronic disabilities, and divorce.
-One in three who try cigarettes become addicted - a higher rate than for heroin or cocaine!
Social support
Spirituality and faith * - A study that followed 5286 Californians over 28 years found that, after controlling for age, gender,
ethnicity, and education, frequent religious attendees were 36 per cent less likely to have died in any year.
Another study found that at age 20 a life expectancy of 83 years for frequent attenders and 75 years for infrequent
or non-attenders of religious services.
Creative nonadherence
Reactance
Positively framed messages
Negatively framed messages
Subjective well-being
Set point for happiness
CHAPTER 9
DEVELOPMENT
Developmental psychology (definition)
Nature-nurture issue
Cross-sectional research
Longitudinal research
Sequential research
Chromosomes
Genes
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus
Age of viability
Genetic influences
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Sickle-cell anemia
Tay Sachs disease
Down Syndrome
Teratogens
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Neonate * - A term for newborn infants during the first weeks after birth.
Reflexes
Rooting
Sucking
Grasping * - A neonatal reflex consisting of grasping objects placed in the palms.
Gag
Startle (Moro) * - Evoked by sudden loss of support or the sounding of a loud noise; in response, the arms are
extended and brought toward each other.
Babinski
Vision: babies love to look at human faces!
Habituation
Maturation * - The physical growth and development of the body and nervous system. Also, the unfolding of biologically
predetermined patterns of behavior.
Cephalo-caudal development * - Development proceeding from head to toe.
Proximo-distal development * - Development from the center of the body to the extremities.
Motor primacy principle (readiness principle) * - A condition that exists when maturation has advanced enough to allow
rapid acquisition of a particular skill. “Until the necessary physical structures are developed, no amount of practice
will be sufficient to develop a skill.”
Harry Harlow
Attachment
Contact Comfort * - A pleasant and reassuring feeling human and animal infants get from touching or clinging to
something soft and warm, usually their mother.
Konrad Lorenz (Ethologist)
Critical period * - An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism’s exposure to certain stimuli or experiences
produces proper development.
Imprinting * - The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life. Also, a
restricted for learning.
Mary Ainsworth (The Ainsworth strange situation)
Securely attached
Avoidant
Ambivalent
Disorganized-disoriented
Father’s Role
Child care
Parenting styles and social development
Authoritarian
Permissive
Authoritative
Uninvolved
Temperament (Chess and Thomas studies)
40% Easy
10% Difficult
30% Slow to warm up
Erik Erikson
Psychosocial development
Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame-and-doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Ego-Integrity vs. despair
Cognition
Schema * - A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Assimilation * - Interpreting one’s new experience in terms of one’s existing schemas.
Accomodation * - Adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Jean Piaget
Cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage
Object permanence
Stranger anxiety
Preoperational stage
Egocentric thought
Theory of mind * - Ability to read other people’s feelings and thoughts.
Intuitive thought * - Thinking that makes little or no use of reasoning and logic.
Concrete operational stage
Conservation mastery
Reversibility
Time, space, number
Formal operations
Abstract thinking
Hypothetical thinking
Information processing
Meta cognition
Lev Vygotsky
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
“Scaffolding”
Adolescence
Puberty
Menarche * - The onset of menstruation; a woman’s first menstrual period, usually around age 11 or 12.
Spermarche
Lawrence Kohlberg
Moral development
Level I Preconventional morality
Stage 1 Punishment orientation * - Actions are evaluated in terms of possible punishment, not goodness or
badness; obedience to power is emphasized.
Stage 2 Pleasure-seeking orientation * - Proper action is determined by one’s own needs; concern for the needs of
others is largely a matter of “You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours,” not of loyalty, gratitude, or
justice.
Level II Conventional morality
Stage 3 Good boy/girl orientation * - Good behavior is that which pleases others in the immediate group or which
brings approval; the emphasis is on being “nice”.
Stage 4 Authority orientation * - The emphasis is on upholding law, order, and authority, doing one’s duty, and
following social rules.
Level III Postconventional morality
Stage 5 Social-contract orientation * - Support of laws and rules is based on rational analysis and mutual
agreement; rules are recognized as open to question but are upheld for the good of the community and in
the name of democratic values.
Stage 6 Morality of individual principles * - Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles that tend to be
general, comprehensive, or universal; high value is placed on justice, dignity, and equality.
Carol Gilligan – “Morality of Caring”
Erik Erikson
“Search for Identity”
Psychosocial development stages (again)
Identity vs. role confusion
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Ego-Integrity vs. despair
Adolescent suicide concerns
Adulthood
Physical development
Menopause
Midlife transition
Marriage, children, and divorce: changes and patterns
Changing roles of men and women
Androgyny * - The presence of both “masculine” and “feminine” traits in a single person (as masculinity and femininity are
traditionally defined within one’s culture).
Cognitive changes
Misconceptions
Fluid intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
Senility
Alzheimer’s disease
Disengagement theory of aging
Activity theory of aging
Life review
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1969)
Five stages of impending death (DABDA)
CHAPTER 14
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Social psychology (definition)
Attitudes
Message source
Attitude communicator
Characteristics of the message
Characteristics of the target
Routes of persuasion
Central route processing
Peripheral route processing
Need for cognition
Cognitive dissonance (Leon Festinger, 1957)
Methods for reducing cognitive dissonance
Modify cognitions
Change perceived importance
Add cognitions
Deny relationships of cognitions
Social cognition
Schemas
Central traits
Impression formation
Attribution theory
Situational causes
Dispositional causes
Attribution biases
Halo effect
Assumed-similarities bias
Self-serving bias
Fundamental attribution error
Attributions in a cultural context
Collectivistic orientation
Individualistic orientation
Social influence
Conformity
Solomon Asch (1951)
Four conformity conclusions
Status
Social support
Groupthink
Compliance
Compliance techniques
Foot-in-the-door
Door-in-the-face
That’s-not-all
Not-so-free-sample
Norm of reciprocity
I/O psychology
Obedience
Stanley Milgram
Stereotype
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Prejudice
Discrimination
Social identity theory
Reducing consequences of prejudice and discrimination (three ways)
Interpersonal attraction or close attraction
Proximity
Mere exposure
Similarity
Reciprocity-of-liking effect
Physical attractiveness
Ten friendship qualities
Passionate or (romantic) love
Companionate love
Three parts of love (Robert Sternberg)
Decision/commitment component
Intimacy component
Passion component
Aggression
Instinct approaches
Frustration-aggression approaches
Frustration
Observational learning approaches
Prosocial behavior
Diffusion of responsibility (see chapter one)
Altruism
CHAPTER 10
PERSONALITY
Personality (definition)
Psychodynamic approaches
Sigmund Freud
Psychoanalytic theory
Levels of awareness
Conscious
Preconscious
Unconscious
Id
Pleasure principle
Libido * - The force, primarily pleasure oriented, that energized the personality.
Eros * - (life instinct)
Thanatos * - (death instinct)
Ego
Reality principle
Superego
Conscience * - The part of the superego that causes guilt when its standards are not met.
Ego-ideal * - The part of the superego representing ideal behavior; a source of pride when its standards are met.
Erogenous zone * - Any body area that produces pleasurable sensations.
Fixation * - In Freudian theory, lasting conflicts developed during a particular psychosexual state as a result of frustration
or over-indulgence..
Psychosexual stages
Oral stage (Birth to18 months)
Oral aggressive * - A person who uses the mouth to express hostility by shouting, cursing, biting, and so forth.
Also, one who actively exploits others.
Oral dependent * - A person who wants to passively receive attention, gifts, love, and so forth.
Anal stage (12-18 to 36 months)
Retentive
Expulsive
Phallic stage (3 to 5-6 years)
Oedipus conflict
Electra Conflict
Identification
“Penis envy”
Latency period (5-6 to puberty)
Genital stage (Adolescence to adulthood)
Anxiety
Defense mechanisms
“D-A-D” * - Deny, avoid, distort reality.
Repression
Regression
Reaction formation
Projection
Rationalization
Displacement
Sublimation
Denial * - Protecting oneself from an unpleasant reality by refusing to recognize it.
Compensation * - Counteracting real or imagined weakness by emphasizing desirable traits or seeking to excel in the area
of weakness or in other areas.
Intellectualization * - Separating emotion from a threatening or anxiety-provoking situation by talking or thinking about it in
impersonal “intellectual” terms.
Isolation * - Separating contradictory thoughts or feelings into “logic-tight” mental compartments so that they do not come
into conflict.
Neo-Freudians
Alfred Adler (striving for superiority)
Inferiority complex
Karen Horney (basic anxiety)
Carl Jung (collective unconscious)
Archetypes
Trait Theory
Traits
Allport
Cattell
Eysenck
“The Big Five”
Learning approaches
Skinner’s behaviorist approach
Social cognitive approaches to personality
Self efficacy
Self-esteem
Deterministic
Biological and evolutionary approaches
Temperament
Learning theory
Humanistic Approaches
Carl Rogers
Self-actualization
Three conditions of a growth-promoting climate * Genuineness
Acceptance
Empathy
Unconditional positive regard
Incongruent person * - A person who has an inaccurate self-image or whose self-image differs greatly from the ideal-self.
Self-concept
Ideal self * - Image of the person you most like to be; similar to Freud’s ego-ideal.
True self * - The actual you.
Self-image * - Total subjective perception of one’s body and personality. (another term for self-concept).
Psychological tests
Self-report
MMPI-2
Test standardization
Projective personality tests
Rorschach (Inkblot) test
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Behavioral assessment
TEST IV
CHAPTER 12
PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Psychopathology * - The scientific study of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.
Psychological disorders * - A “harmful dysfunction” in which behavior is judged to be atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, and
unjustifiable.
Abnormal behavior (definition)
Factors for deciding abnormality * Subjective discomfort - personal, private feelings of discomfort/ unhappiness
Statistical abnormality - abnormality as determined by comparing test scores
Social non-conformity - disobeying societal standards for acceptable conduct
Situational context - assessment of situation or context of behavior exhibited
Cultural relativity - perceptions/judgements made relative to cultural values.
(failure to communicate; consistently unpredictable)
Two core features of abnormality *
1. Maladaptive behavior that makes it difficult to adapt to the environment and meet the demands of day-to-day
life.
2. Loss of ability to control one’s thoughts, feelings, behaviors adequately.
Insanity vs. psychosis * - Insanity is a legal term; psychosis is a psychiatric term.
Neurosis vs. psychosis * - Neurosis is manifested by high levels of self-defeating anxiety; psychosis is manifested by a
loss of contact with reality.
Medical perspective
Psychoanalytic perspective
Behavioral perspective
Cognitive perspective
Humanistic perspective
Sociocultural perspective
Labeling problems
David Rosenhan/Stanford University
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR)
DSM-IV-TR (selected categories) *
Psychotic disorders - A severe mental disorder characterized by a retreat from reality, by hallucinations and
delusions, and by social withdrawal.
Organic mental disorders - A mental disorder caused by brain disease or injury.
Psychoactive Substance related disorders - Abuse or dependence on mood altering drugs.
Mood disorders - Major disturbance of mood or emotion; depression or mania.
Anxiety disorders - Disruptive feelings of fear, apprehension, or anxiety.
Somataform disorders - Physical symptoms that mimic disease or injury for which there is no identifiable cause.
Dissociative disorders - Temporary amnesia; multiple personality.
Personality disorders - Deeply ingrained maladaptive personality patterns that are usually identifiable in early
adolescence or childhood.
Sexual and gender identity disorders - Any of a wide range of difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual
behavior (paraphilias), or sexual adjustment.
Alzheimer’s disease * - 1of 10 adults over age 65; 20% of cases are inherited
Anxiety vs. fear * Anxiety is a response to an unclear or ambiguous threat; anticipation of harm.
Fear is a more focused an intense; a response to a clear or specific
threat.
Anxiety-based disorders
Adjustment disorder (“nervous breakdown”) * - An emotional disturbance caused by ongoing stressors within the range of
common experience.
Anxiety disorders
Phobic disorder
Specific phobias * - An intense, irrational fear of specific objects, activities, or situations.
Social phobias * - An intense, irrational fear of being observed, evaluated, embarrassed, or humiliated by
others in social situations.
Panic disorder with agoraphobia
Panic disorder without agoraphobia
Generalized anxiety disorder
“Freefloating anxiety”
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Acute stress disorder * - You are tormented for less than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible events
you have experienced.
Posttraumatic stress disorder * - You are tormented for more than a month by the emotional aftereffects of horrible
events you have experienced.
Causes of anxiety disorders
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Obsessions
Compulsions
Somataform disorders
Hypochondriasis
Conversion disorders
“Glove anesthesia” * - Loss of sensitivity in the areas of the skin that would normally be covered by a
glove.
Somatization disorder * - Afflicted persons have numerous physical complaints such as vomiting and nausea,
shortness of breath, difficulty swallowing, or painful menstrual periods. Typically, they have consulted
many doctors, but no organic cause for their distress can be identified.
Pain disorder * - Pain that has no identifiable physical cause and appears to be of psychological origin.
Dissociative disorders
Dissociative identity disorder (multiple personality)
Dissociative amnesia
Dissociative fugue
Mood disorders
Major depressive disorder * - Extreme emotional depression for at least two weeks.
Dysthymic disorder * - Moderately depressed mood on most days during the last two years.
Mania
Bipolar I Disorder
Bipolar II Disorder
Cyclothymic disorder * - Moderate mania and moderate depression persisting two years or more.
Causes of mood disorders
Norepinephrine
Serotonin
Learned helplessness
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
Phototherapy
Suicide (who, what, when, how)
Psychosis
Schizophrenia (“split mind”)
Delusions * - A false belief held against all contrary evidence.
Depressive * - Feel that they have committed unforgivable sin or horrible crime.
Somatic * - Believe that their body is “rotting away” or is emitting foul odors.
Grandeur * - Think that they are extremely important.
Influence * - Feel that they are being controlled by others or unseen forces.
Persecution * - Believe that other are “out to get them”; extreme suspicion.
Reference * - Assigning great personal meaning to unrelated events.
“Word salad”
Hallucinations
Emotional disturbances
Withdrawal
Flat affect
Process Schizophrenia (Slow developing)
Reactive Schizophrenia (Fast developing)
Positive symptoms (Type I) * - Are the presence of inappropriate behaviors. Patients may experience hallucinations, are
often disorganized and deluded in their talk, and may exhibit inappropriate laughter, tears, or rage.
Negative symptoms (Type II) * - Are the absence of appropriate behaviors. Patients may have toneless voices,
expressionless faces, or mute and rigid bodies.
Subtypes of schizophrenia:
Disorganized
Paranoid
Catatonic
Undifferentiated
Residual
Dopamine hypothesis
Brain abnormalities
Expressed emotion
Overattention to stimuli
Underattention to stimuli
Predisposition model of schizophrenia
Genetic factors
Personality disorders (Moderate impairment)
Antisocial personality disorder
Dependent * - Lack confidence and are extremely submissive and dependent on others (clinging).
Narcissistic * - Think they are wonderful, brilliant, important, and worthy of constant admiration.
Histrionic * - Are dramatic and flamboyant; exaggerate emotions to get attention from others.
Personality disorders (High impairment)
Obsessive-compulsive * - Demand order, perfection, control, and rigid routine at all times.
Schizoid * - Feel very little emotion and can’t form close personal relationships with others.
Avoidant * - Are timid, uncomfortable in social situations, and fear evaluation.
Personality disorders (Severe impairment)
Borderline * - Self-image, moods, and impulses are erratic, and they are extremely sensitive to any hint of
criticism, rejection, or abandonment by others.
Paranoid * - Deeply distrust others and are suspicious of their motives.
Schizotypal * - Are loners, they engage in extremely odd behavior, and their thought patterns are bizarre, but they
are not actively psychotic.
Childhood disorders
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Sexual and gender identity disorders * - Any of a wide range of difficulties with sexual identity, deviant sexual behavior, or
sexual adjustment.
Paraphilias * - Sexual deviations that are considered to be compulsive and destructive. Typically they cause guilt, anxiety,
or discomfort for one or both participants.
Pedophilia - Sex with children, or child molesting.
Fetishism - Sexual arousal associated with inanimate objects.
Exhibitionism – “Flashing” or displaying genitals to unwilling viewers.
Voyeurism – “Peeping Tom” viewing genitals of others without permission.
Transvestic fetishism - Sexual arousal from wearing clothes of opposite sex.
Sexual sadism - Deriving sexual pleasure from inflicting pain.
Sexual masochism - Desiring pain as part of the sex act.
Frotteurism - Sexually touching or rubbing against an unwilling person.
Social and cultural concerns
Amok
Ataque de nervios
Koro
Brain fag
Locura * - Latino term for chronic psychotic symtpoms.
Zar * - Term used in North Africa and Middle Eastern societies when spirits are believe to have possessed a
person. Marked by shouting, head banging, singing, or weeping. May become apathetic and withdrawn.
Dhat * - In Indian society, dhat is a fear of semen loss during nocturnal emission making the man feel guilty and
anxious.
Medical student disease
CHAPTER 13
TREATMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Psychotherapy
Biomedical therapy
Psychodynamic therapy
Psychoanalysis
Transference
Free association * - Technique of having client say anything that comes to mind, regardless of how embarrassing
or unimportant it may seem.
Behavioral treatment approaches
Aversive conditioning
Systematic desensitization
Hierarchy of fears
Operant techniques
Token system
Contingency contracting
Observational learning
Dialectical behavior therapy
Cognitive treatment approaches
Cognitive-behavioral approach
Albert Ellis’ Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
Humanistic therapy
Carl Rogers’ Person-centered therapy
Gestalt therapy
Interpersonal therapy (IPT)
Group and family therapy
Spontaneous remission
Eclectic approach
Biomedical therapy
Drug therapy
Antipsychotic drugs (major tranquilizers)
Tardive dyskinesia * - A neurological disorder associated with excessive use of major tranquilizers.
Antianxiety drugs or minor tranquilizers * - Drugs (such as Valium and Xanax)
Antidepressant drugs (such as Lexapro and Prozac)
Lithium
Electroconvulsive therapy
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Psychosurgery (prefrontal lobotomy)
Community psychology
Deinstitutionalization
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CHAPTER 7
THINKING, LANGUAGE, AND INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence (definition)
G-factor
Fluid intelligence
Crystallized intelligence
Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences
Information processing approaches
Practical intelligence
Emotional intelligence
Intelligence tests
Alfred Binet
Chronological age
Mental Age
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
IQ formula
Stanford Binet Intelligence Test
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-III)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV (WISC-IV)
Achievement test
Aptitude test
Reliability
Validity
Norms
Mental Retardation
Mild
Moderate
Severe
Profound
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Familial Retardation
Intellectually gifted
Culture-fair IQ test
Heritability