Download Chapter Seven - Windsor C

Chapter Seven Review
Cognition - Memory
A system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information Memory
Not being able to recall how many stripes are on a flag Vague Memory
Recalling the image of a penny Vague Memory
MEMORY’S THREE BASIC TASKS
Three basic tasks of Memory: Encoding Storage Retrieval
Encoding:
Elaboration:
Storage:
Retrieval:
Eidetic Memory:
The three stages of memory: sensory, working, long term
Duration of sensory memory: less than a second, ¼
Storage capacity: can be 12 or more items, but all but 3 or 4 disappear before they enter our
consciousness
Function of sensory memory: to store these images briefly
Iconic Memory: Visual
Echoic Memory: Hearing
Tactile Sensory Memory: Touch
Olfactory Sensory Memory Smell
Working Memory: stage two
aka Short term memory EX: a phone number you just looked up
Remembering to write down your homework assignment on your hand is working memory
Remembering the combination to a locker is using long term memory
Short term memory duration is about 20 seconds
Short term memory capacity is about 7 items…“Magic Number Seven”
…seven items of any sort..(letters, numbers, words,
shapes, sounds) will fill the working memory of most people
What stage has the smallest capacity of the three stages: Working memory
Three Parts of Working Memory are Central Executive: directs attention to material retrieved from
LTM or to important input from the sensory memory
Phonological Loop: Temporarily stores sounds….like someone’s name
Sketchpad: Stores and manipulates mental images…like when you can imagine driving a car to school
from home
Breaking up your social security number in parts to remember it is an example of Chunking
Cramming for a test the night before by repeating the possible answers to over and over again is
Maintenance Rehearsal
a.
Cramming for a test the night before by repeating the possible answers and connecting them to what you
already know is Elaborate Rehearsal… Levels of Processing Theory
What is a more efficient method of transferring information into the LTM, maintenance or elaborate
rehearsal? Elaborate Rehearsal
:
1-800-EYE-EXAM is a form of Elaborate Rehearsal
Remembering a person’s name is using Acoustic Encoding: The Phonological Loop
Backtracking your steps to try to remember where you might have left your backpack is Visual and
Spatial Encoding..the sketchpad
The theory that more connections you make with new information while it is in the working memory to
prior knowledge in the LTM, the more likely you are to remember it is called Levels of Processing
Theory
Long-term Memory capacity is unlimited
Long-term Memory duration is unlimited
Riding a bike is an example of Procedural Memory
Opening a soda is an example of Procedural Memory
Procedural me memory has these two parts: Episodic and semantic
Remembering the last six American presidents is an example of Declarative Memory Semantic Memory
Fact memory Requires some conscious mental effort
Remembering the capital of Texas is an example of Declarative Memory Semantic Memory
To win on Jeopardy, you would need a good Declarative Memory Semantic Memory
Remembering your first vacation is an example of Episodic Memory
Remembering your first boyfriend/girlfriend is an example of Episodic Memory
This is also known as your “autobiographical memory. Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory: Language, fats, general knowledge, basic meanings of words and concepts
Retains no information on time/place in which its contents were recorded…..keep meaning of
‘cat’ but when you learned it
Physical change in the brain associated with memory is also known as Engram or Memory Trace
The process by which short-term memories become long-term memories Consolidation
Because you took to much ecstasy, you can not remember anything afterwards. This is known as
Antergrade Amnesia: Inability to form new memories
You get hit on the head with a 2 by 4 and can not remember anything about your past life. This is known
as Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to remember old memories
Remembering where you were when you heard about the attacks of September 11th is a Flashbulb
Memories:
How long do flashbulb memories stay accurate? for least the first year after the event
The unconscious, unintentional forming of a memory is Implicit Memory
A golfer’s swing is an example of Implicit Memory
Memories that are not deliberately learned or those of which you have no conscious awareness
Remembering the time of an appointment is an example of Explicit Memory
Memories that have been processed with attention can be consciously recalled
Retrieval Cues
Stimuli that are used to assist in your recall of information
Retrieval clues
Remembering the answers to a test by making up a song is an example of Elaborative Rehearsal
The unconscious stimulation of a memory is Priming
When trying to answer an essay question, you would use the retrieval cue of Recall
When trying to answer a multiple choice test question, you would use the retrieval cue of Recognition
If Joe is in a bad mod, he may end up daydreaming about bad things in his life. This is known as
Memory-congruent Memory
TOT Phenomenon:
is in your memory
“On the Tip of Your Tongue” Inability to recall a word while knowing the word
MEMORY’S SEVEN SINS
1. Transience
2. Absent-mindedness
3. Blocking
4. Misattribution
5. Suggestibility
6. Bias
7. Unwanted Persistence
Long term memories gradually weaken over time Transience
Forgetting the name of your first grade teacher, which you could recall two years ago, is an example of
Transience
A graph illustrating that the greatest amount of forgetting occurs during the first day after learning and
then reaches a plateau, below which little more is forgotten Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
Forgetting to pick up your brother at school because you met up with a friend is Absent-mindedness
Forgetting that occurs when an item cannot be accessed or retrieved and caused by interference is
Blocking
Driving a rental car and still reaching to turn the radio station on the dash when they controls are on the
steering wheel is an example of Proactive Interference
Earlier memory/learning interferes with new information
After driving a car with no clutch, you forget to use the clutch when you drive your own car is an
example of Retroactive Interference
New information interferes with memory for information learned earlier
When someone tells you their phone number, and you forget the numbers ion the middle (413-662-2323)
and you forget the 663, this is an example of Serial Position Effect:
Interference related to the sequence in which information is presented…usually items in the middle of a sequence
are remembered less than lose first (primacy effect) or last (recency effect)
After hearing the list of words related to sleep, you recalled the word sleep, which wasn’t in the list. This
is an example of Misattribution
Someone tells you a story. A week later, you tell the same story, but relate that is happened to you. This is
an example of Misattribution
A police officer interrogates a murder suspect. Under pressure to make an arrest, he slips in
details of the case during the questioning. After a few hours, the suspect begins to include these
details in his story. This is an example of Suggestibility
Memory Distortions
A. Misinformation Effect: Distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation
Found in Loftus and Palmer studies…after seeing two cars collide, responses depended heavily
upon how the questions were worded….using the word ‘smash’ instead of ‘hit’
Jenny claims she cam remember her actual birth. This most likely would be a Fabricated Memory
If you believe that Arab people are terrorists and then hear of a terrorists attack you are more likely to
believe that an Arab committed the crime even if they are innocent. This is an example of Bias
The belief by many Americans that Iraq was part of the September 11th attacks is an example of
Expectancy Bias
Tendency to distort recalled events to fit one’s expectations
If you are currently a Democrat you will overestimate the number of democratic candidates you
have voted for over the years and "forget" about the times that you voted for Republicans.
This is an example of Self-Consistency
This is when a song is stuck in your head: Unwanted Persistence
April is dumped by Steve. For days so can not stop thinking about Steve and what he did.
Unwanted Persistence
"How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics!” is an
example of a memory technique called Mnemonics
( Counting the letters in each word yields the sequence 3,1,4,1,5,9,2,6…)
Taking a mental walk throughout your house and asking yourself , "What is on the living-room door?
What's on the sleeping room bed. What's in the oven?" is a memory technique called Method of Loci
(LOW-sys)
To remember a grocery list, the story “I once went to a farm that had cows, chickens and pigs drinking
Coke” is an example of a Natural language Mediator
Born with the capability to learn language
Innateness Theory of Language
Noam Chomsky’s Innateness Theory of Language
LAD Language Acquisition Device
The stage of language acquisition where babies make nearly all the sounds heard in all languages
Babbling: A Foundation of Language:
Three Stages of Acquiring Vocabulary and Grammar
1. One Word Stage….mamma drink
2. Two Word Stage …1st develop grammar rules
3. Telegraphic Stage short, simple sentences of nouns/verbs…w/o plurals, tenses or function words
such as ‘of’ and ‘the’…..”Ball hit Evie cry”
Morphemes: Meaningful units of language that make up words
Mark verbs to show tense…walked….possession Mike’s…plurality foxes
Rachael walks into the office of her new dentist for the first time and get the overwhelming feeling that
she has been there before. She experienced Déjà vu:
When you are told to imagine a bird is an example of a Natural Concept
Prototype: Ideal/best example of a concept category….’bird’
Thinking of a rectangle is an example of an Artificial Concepts
Represent precisely defined ideas or abstractions…NOT actual objects in the real world
Living beings ----animals----birds----canary = Concept Hierarchies:
Organize levels of concepts from most general to most specific
Schemas and Scripts
I think that all librarians are middle aged women with cardigan sweaters, glasses and a bun. If I meet a
librarian who fulfills these expectations, it would reinforce my Schema
An airliner passenger, upon hearing the word ‘terminal’ conjures up an image of crowds, long lines,
searches, and airplanes. This is a Schema
Knowing how to check out a book at the library is an example of a Script
You go to a new fancy restaurant, and you are nervous because you are on a first date. However, since
you have been to other nice restaurants before, you know that you will first be seated, then someone will
take your drink orders, then you will have an appetizer, followed by dinner. If all goes well of the date,
you may even stay for dessert! What is this an example of? Script
Going to church is an example of a Script
Conflicting scripts: When people don’t follow similar scripts, there can be tension, feeling uncomfortable
Problem Solving
Brad is home when all of his lights suddenly go out. His thought that "this is what happens when a fuse is
blown" would be said to Identifying the Problem
Selecting a Strategy
An algorithm is a step-by-step solution to a problem that is likely to be successful.
Problem solving strategies that guarantee a correct outcome.. if applied correctly
They always work is used correctly
Good for determining your gap, not so good determining what to pant in your garden
Heuristics: Best described as a “rule of thumb”
Cognitive shortcuts used to solve complex mental tasks
More efficient that algorithms but often still correct
Heuristics Strategies
Working Backward
Searching for Analogies
Breaking a big problem into smaller problems
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Leon is an architect, he has been plotting out restaurants. For all of the restaurants in in the past, Leon has
worked the traffic flow in a clockwise manner. For the current restaurant this will not work, but Leon
cannot think of another way to route the traffic. Leon is experiencing Mental Set
Jenny is locked out of her car, it is cold and she is upset. Jenny forgets that she has a purse filled with
objects that might be of use in getting her into the car (bobby pins, eyeglass screwdriver, etc.). Jenny is
demonstrating Functional Fixedness
Wendell is a great surfer but he never considers surfing as a career, instead he goes into accounting which
he has no real passion for, Wendell is exhibiting Self Imposed Limitations
Influences Upon Judging and Making Decisions
Sheila is collecting information for a survey. She believes that individual on public aid have a tendency
to take advantage of the money they receive from the government. As Sheila collects her data, she
dismisses the information regarding hard working individuals on public aid and focuses on the
information that suggests that people are taking advantage. Sheila is demonstrating the Confirmation
Bias
When Kevin says he knew the Giants would win the Super Bowl, he was exhibiting what?
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias: Faulty heuristic caused by basing an estimate on an unrelated quantity
Meghan is a cheerleader at your high school. She is always happy and outgoing and you assume that the
rest of the cheerleaders act much the same way, this potentially false belief is an example of a
Representativeness Bias
You are baby sitting one Friday evening and after the children are in bed you decide to watch the movie
'Scream'. After watching the movie you are sure that you hear sounds coming from the basement and are
frightened that there may be a killer in the house. In reality the chances that someone has broken into the
house are no better than they were before you watched the film, however your are still scared. This is an
example of which of the following Availaiblitiy Bias
Faulty heuristic strategy that estimates probabilities based upon information that can be recalled from experience
Creativity: Mental process that produces novel responses that contribute to the solution of a problem
A person who is a fine guitar player would be said to have a(n) ________ for it. Aptitude
Innate potentialities for creativity…