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Psychology as Science • Psychology is the study of human behavior and application of the gained knowledge. • Areas of Study: • Basic Research: Try to acquire knowledge. Includes neuroscience, developmental, social, cognitive, and personality psychology. • Applied Psychology: Uses acquired knowledge. Incudes clinical and industrial/organizational psychology. The scientific method •Construct a theory: an explanation of a phenomenon using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behavior. •A good theory should produce testable predictions called hypotheses. Hypotheses • Hypothesis is a prediction of a particular outcome. • Always hypothesize a difference. • Hypothesis must be testable. • You should include directionality in the hypothesis • Viewing more TV will increase anxiety. • A hypothesis is usually formulated after careful observation. To test a hypothesis, we conduct an experiment. Research Methods • Experiments: Researchers directly manipulate one variable (IV) and measure the resulting affects on another variable (DV) while keeping all other variables constant. • Confounding Variables: • Placebo effects- changes in state due to receiving a treatment when the treatment itself has no biological effects. • Subject Variables- Variables that human subjects bring in with them, such as age, sex, occupation, etc. • Random assignment: participants are randomly assigned a treatment condition. Solves Confounds. Research Methods Cont. • Correlational Research: Indicates the extent to which two variables vary together. (Use scatterplots to see trends) • Does NOT imply causation. • These methods are used when experiments are either impractical or ethically impossible. • If you know one variable you can then predict the other. • Positive Correlation: as one variable increases so does the other. • Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other variable decreases. Correlation coefficient: Ranges from -1 to +1. 0 = zero correlation Behavioral Neuroscience Collect Transform Transmit Layout of nervous system Nervous system Peripheral Autonomic (selfregulated action of internal organs and glands) Sympathetic (arousal) Somatic (voluntary movement of skeletal muscles) Parasympathetic (relaxation) Central Brain (further divisions coming!) Spinal Cord Neuron structure Signal: Action Potential The neuron in resting state (remember fries) • INSIDE = pot(ato) - Potassium • Inside is negative • Surrounded by fat • Layer surrounding neuron is fatty and won’t let ions in. Ions can only go through special gates. • OUTSIDE = lots of sodium & chloride Neurotransmitters • Neurons “talk” to each other using chemical neurotransmitters. • Fast acting: • Glutamate (excitatory), GABA (inhibitory), & Acetylcholine (movement) • Slow acting: • Dopamine (pleasure), Serotonin (mood), Substance P (runners high) • Signal Termination: To prevent over-excitation, NT is either broken down in the synaptic cleft, or is reabsorbed pre-synaptically (reuptake). Major Structures • Hindbrain: • Medulla: respiration/BP, vomiting • Cerebellum & Pons: coordinated movement • Midbrain: • Reticular Formation: arousal, alertness • Inferior Colliculus: auditory localization • Superior Colliculus: visual localization • Forebrain: • Hypothalamus: homeostasis • Thalamus: relay station • Limbic System: emotion & memory • Amygdala: emotion • Nucleus Accumbens: rewards • Hippocampus: memory • Cortex: higher order cognition Pp. 64-68 What to remember when making an educated guess: 1. Older & lower brain structures are for more survival based functions like breathing, seeing and moving. 2. Higher/newer structures are for more advanced functions such as cognition and language. The Four Lobes of the Cortex The Brain Cortex & Specialization of Function Human Development Brain Plasticity • Describes the brain’s capacity for remodeling itself, brain is amazingly plastic in early life • Case of hydrocephalus • Limits of Plasticity • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome disrupts genetically preprogrammed neuron birth and migration Domains of Change During Development •Biological: physical development. •Cognitive: development of thought and mind. •Social: development of patterns of interaction with others. •Moral/Ethical: development of a sense of right and wrong and personal responsibility. Cognitive Development • Thinking and reasoning develops in stages • Each stage is genetically preprogrammed, so the environment can only change the speed that we pass through the stages. • Schema: framework for understanding the world around us. • Assimilation: fitting new information into an existing schema. • Accommodation: modifying or creating a new schema to represent new information. Piaget’s Four Stage Theory • Sensorimotor: Child understands through sensing and acting. • Limitations: Cannot distinguish past & future, no object permanence, cannot think symbolically • Milestone: object permanence, stranger anxiety • Preoperational: • Limitations: Poor reasoning (conservation tasks) • Milestone: symbolic thought, language • Concrete Operational: • Limitations: Poor reasoning about the abstract • Milestone: logical reasoning for observable things (can do conservation tasks) • Formal Operational: • Milestone: logical reasoning for unobservable or abstract events/things (calculus) Social Development: Attachment • Harlow’s Monkeys • Preferred the “warm fuzzy” surrogate mother to the food providing mother • As adults, monkeys showed erratic behavior in groups • Effects of Daycare • Attachment isn’t affected as long as you don’t have an insensitive, unresponsive mother and low quality daycare (NIH, 1996)