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VIII- Genetics (Topic 4/10) A- Meiosis (Topic 4.2/10.1) - State that meiosis is a reduction division of diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei. - Define homologous chromosomes. - Outline the process of meiosis including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions which result in four haploid cells. - Explain how non- disjunction can lead to changes in chromosome number illustrated by reference to Down syndrom (trisomy 21). - State that in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to size and structure. - State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre- natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities. - Analyze a human karyotype to determine gender and whether non disjunction has occurred. - Describe the behavior of chromosomes in the phases of meiosis. - Outline the formation of chiasmata in the process of crossing over. - Explain how meiosis results in an effective infinite genetic variety of gametes through crossing over in prophase I and random orientation in metaphase I. B- Chromosomes, genes, alleles and mutations (Topic 4.1) - State that eukaryotic chromosomes are made up of DNA and proteins. - Define gene, allele and genome. - Define gene mutation. - Explain the consequences of a base substitution mutation in relation to the processes of transcription and translation, using the example of sickle cell anemia. C-Theoretical genetics (Topic 4.3) - Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous , carrier, test cross . - Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a punnett grid. - State that some genes have more than two alleles (Multiple alleles). - Describe ABO blood groups as an example of co-dominance and multiple alleles. - Explain how the sex chromosomes determine gender, by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans. - State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans. - Define sex linkage. - Describe the inheritance of colorblindness and hemophilia as examples of sex linkage. - State that the female can be homozygous or heterozygous, with respect to sex- linked genes. - Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X- linked recessive alleles. - Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance. Deduce the genotypes or phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts. D-Dihybrid crosses (Topic 10.2) - Calculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes - Distinguish between autosomes and sex chromosomes - Explain how crossing over between non sister chromatids of a homologous pair in prophase I can result in an exchange of alleles. - Define linkage group - Explain an example of a cross between two linked genes. - Identify which of the offspring in dihybrid crosses recombinants in a dihybrid are cross involving linked genes. E-Polygenic inheritance (Topic 10.3) - Define polygenic inheritance - Explain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation, using two examples one of which must be human skin color. F- Genetic engineering and biotechnology (Topic 4.4) - Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA. - State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA move in an electric field and are separated according to their size. - State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling. - Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigations. - Analyze DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations. - Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome. - State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal. - Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes(endonucleases) and DNA ligase. - State two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals. - Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one example of genetic modification. - Define clone. - Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells. - Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.