Download Thematic Essays and European Geography

Unit 1, Lesson 2
Thematic Essays and
European Geography
Essential Questions
•
What is the process for writing introductory and body paragraphs for a thematic essay?
•
What is the process for writing a conclusion for a thematic essay?
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Unit 1, Lesson 2
2
Set the Stage
In order to receive a high score on the AP European History Exam, you must have a broad
knowledge of Europe in terms of its geography, political units, and historical themes.
While the AP test won’t directly test your geographical knowledge, you’ll still need to
understand the physical and political structures of Europe in order to fully grasp historical
events.
Some questions on the exam will require simple fact recall; others will require you to
synthesize ideas in an essay. On the day of the exam, you’ll encounter two types of essay
questions: the document-based essay, and the thematic essays. The thematic essays will
test your ability to recall information and understand broad historical topics. Thematic
essays are typically written in the five-paragraph essay format.
Review: Writing a Five-Paragraph Essay
On the College Board Exam (AP test) for European History, you’ll have to write two
thematic essays. The thematic essay questions are designed to assess your understanding of historical themes and concepts along with your ability to formulate clear
and logical responses. The thematic essay questions are typically straightforward
and address various historical topics from 1450 to the present. You’re expected to
respond using facts and information from memory. The questions will also require
you to analyze, assess, and evaluate causes and effects of particular historical subjects. It’s vital that you completely answer the question that is asked, as failure to
do so will result in a lower score. To make sure you answer the question completely,
create a simple outline before you begin writing your essay. Higher-scoring essays
typically follow the standard five-paragraph essay format:
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•
•
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introductory paragraph, including topic sentence, organizational statement,
and thesis statement
body paragraph with supporting evidence and analysis
body paragraph with supporting evidence and analysis
body paragraph with supporting evidence and analysis
concluding paragraph
Writing an Introduction
Begin your thematic essay with a strong introductory paragraph that introduces
the essay’s subject and answers the question posed in general terms. First, write a
topic sentence. The topic sentence should provide appropriate historical context
and demonstrate that you, the writer, have a firm understanding of the essay topic.
The the topic sentence must also act as a hook, grabbing the interest of the reader.
After the topic sentence, write an organizational statement, stating the three topics
that you’ll cover in detail in the body paragraphs. Finish your introduction with
a thesis statement. The thesis statement should address the entire essay question
and clarify your position. To recap, a good introduction includes the following:
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Unit 1, Lesson 2
•
•
•
3
topic sentence
organizational statement
thesis statement
Writing a Body Paragraph
After the introduction, write three body paragraphs. Collectively the body paragraphs should contain the necessary details, examples, assertions, and evidence
to support the thesis statement. Each paragraph should address a discrete topic,
as you outlined in your organizational statement. An effective body paragraph
begins with a topic sentence that provides focus for the rest of the paragraph and
introduces two or three related examples that support the thesis statement. Don’t
simply list examples; explain why each example is important, what it means, and
how it ultimately relates to the thesis statement and the thematic essay question.
Remember: In essay writing, more doesn’t always mean better. Choose only examples
that are clearly connected to the topic sentence; you don’t want to draw attention
away from the main point of the essay. The final sentence of a body paragraph
should summarize the information as well as act as transition to the ideas discussed
in the next paragraph. Here is the structure of a typical body paragraph:
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•
•
•
•
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1
Self-check
What is the basic
structure of a fiveparagraph essay?
topic sentence
fact/example related to the topic sentence
commentary on the example
another fact/example
commentary
summarizing sentence
Writing a Conclusion
If you’ve written a solid introduction and body, a strong conclusion can add significantly to your final score. Your conclusion contains your final words—your last
chance to positively influence the AP grader. The conclusion should review the
body of your essay and restate your thesis. The conclusion is also an opportunity
to venture outside of the question asked and make additional analytical points.
For example, if the thematic essay question focused on secular humanism, the
concluding paragraph might mention Petrarch, Machiavelli, and Bruni, all of
whom would have been discussed previously in the body paragraphs, and then
Guidelines for writing a conclusion
What to do:
•
What to avoid:
Review the information in the body
of the essay
•
Adding new information
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Phrases beginning with in conclusion,
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Restate the thesis statement
in summary, in closing, or
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Add additional analytical points
I have proven that . . . Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.
Unit 1, Lesson 2
4
state the influence of these humanists on later writers. Be careful, however, not
to include new supporting evidence (new statistics, quotations, or other facts) in
your conclusion—your body paragraphs alone should support your thesis. Avoid
beginning phrases with in conclusion, in summary, or in closing. Also, never assume
the reader agrees with the essay, and avoid writing I have proven that . . . . Guard
against making emotionally charged statements that might negatively influence
the AP grader. Here is an example of a strong concluding paragraph:
Throughout this tumultuous time of warfare and clinical upheaval (from the
sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries), many people devoted themselves to
science and to the progress of science. Science contended with religion and sparked
new philosophical concepts. The Scientific Revolution was a major step in changing
not only Europe, but the rest of the world.
In your conclusion, consider that AP European History Exam writers craft
thematic essay questions to represent some of the most important themes of the
course. Use your conclusion to show your grasp of the larger AP European History
curriculum. For example, suppose an essay question asked you to evaluate the
economic and political factors accounting for the failure of the German Weimar
Republic (1918–1933). In your conclusion, you might consider why the Weimar
Republic disappeared in 1933 in the context of the period between the two world
wars. Here is an example written by a student writer:
The Weimar Republic was almost doomed to fail. This government came into power at
the end of a destructive war. This seminal attempt to establish democracy in Germany
could not overcome the deleterious effects of the Great Depression, the lack of democratic
history in Germany, and the humiliation incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Shortly
after the fall of this republic, Hitler came to power with the force of totalitarian rather
than democratic rule.
2
Self-check
What is the purpose
of a concluding
paragraph?
Physical and Political Geographic Locations
on the Blank and Current European Map
The history of mankind is closely linked with the earth’s varied geographic and
climate zones. Europe is a prime example of this relationship, and the environmental
inheritance of the European continent should not be ignored when discussing its
history. Europe’s environment has shaped economic activities, cultural practice,
political forms, and even fashion. Europe’s diverse climate has allowed farmers to
cultivate a variety of essential grains, vegetables, and fruits and raise numerous
domesticated animals, providing sources of wealth and health unrivaled by most of
the world. Geographically, Europe contains abundant natural resources for a wide
range of manufacturing and industrial activities, including mining, metallurgy, and
textile production. This rich geographic inheritance has given Europe its economic
vitality and an ability to control markets and resources abroad. The geography of
Europe is thus directly linked with historical developments, such as exploration
and imperialism, as well as the Commercial and Industrial Revolutions. Geographic
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Unit 1, Lesson 2
5
context acts as a major theme in this
Contemporary Map of Europe
course and is amply showcased in
the ongoing tension between the
identities of individual nations and
the common heritage of “Europe.”
In order to understand Euro-
pean history, knowledge of European
geography is essential. Europe is an
oddly shaped peninsula gouged with
numerous inlets, seas, bays, and gulfs.
Islands, both small and large, punctuate Europe’s waters. The continent
narrows toward the Atlantic in the
west. In the east, it widens into a
great plain as it joins the vast Eurasian
landmass. Its northern and southern
latitudes place Europe in a temperate
climate zone that is ideal for a variety of agricultural products. Most
European countries experience wide
variations between summer and winPhysical and political outline map of Europe
ter temperatures, although this is less
true of nations close to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Although Europe
is the second smallest of the seven continents—only Australia is smaller—it contains
numerous geographical zones. Several large rivers roll through the land, while high
mountain ranges and rich plateaus dot the landscape.
Because of its diversity, the European landmass has proven difficult for one
political entity to control. The Roman Empire failed to entirely subjugate the
continent, and subsequent nations have proven likewise unable to act as a unifying force. The current European Union (EU), established in 1993 as an economic
and political alliance of European countries, has perhaps come closest to creating
unity among Europe’s diverse populations. Yet despite the EU’s successes, European
countries have retained their own languages, cultures, and political forms. Even
Self-check
today, Europe consists of a variety of nation-states, city-states, republics, monarchies,
Why hasn’t Europe ever
and empires. There are numerous contested border regions and multiple centers
been united under a
of power. Although much common ground exists among the nations of Europe,
single political unit?
sufficient diversity has prevented a strong and shared identity from emerging. As
a result, conflicts between groups have all too often resulted in warfare.
3
Extensions
•
Access Thematic Essay Questions from the College Board website for AP
European History. Practice underlining the key words in each question.
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Unit 1, Lesson 2
6
Summary
The ability to craft a logical, well organized, and thorough essay is one of the
most important skills for any student to acquire. The basic five-paragraph historical essay is a format that you will find useful throughout your academic career.
Throughout this course, you will be encouraged to write free response or thematic
essays in order to develop your writing skills. Thematic essay questions discuss
broad historical topics that rely on historical recall and the ability to demonstrate
a broad understanding of historical concepts and themes. One of the most important aspects of the five-paragraph essay is the final paragraph, or conclusion. In
the conclusion, you have a final opportunity to influence AP graders and to stress
your understanding of the topic.
In addition to improving your writing skills, you will also be expected to gain
a broad knowledge of European geography. The relationships between neighboring countries and between individual countries and the environment have had an
extraordinary impact on the continent’s history. So gaining a basic understanding of
European geography is essential to scoring well on the AP European History Exam.
Looking Ahead
The importance of geography and its influence on history cannot be ignored.
A nation’s location, relative to other countries and to important geographical
features, can have powerful positive or negative effects. A geographically wellsituated nation often has a greater political influence. By contrast, a nation with
fewer geographic advantages may find its position unfortunate in times of war
or expansion. Because of its varied geography, Europe has never been united as a
single political unit, but instead a collection of peoples and nations joined only by
a shared name. In fact, the European continent was named after a Greek nymph
named Europa, a mythological being whose story highlights the restless spirit of
inquiry that has dominated European history. This myth can perhaps provide some
insight into the relationship between European geography and history.
Self-Check Answers
1. Introductory paragraph, including thesis
3. While there is no all-encompassing simple answer
statement; body paragraph with supporting
evidence; body paragraph with supporting
evidence; body paragraph with supporting evidence;
concluding/summarizing paragraph
2. The concluding paragraph acts as a summary
and demonstrates the larger relevance of the
question and the information discussed.
to this question, one of the most basic reasons for
European disunity is related to its varied geography.
With so many differences in geographical features
and climate, various populations have successfully
fostered their own languages, cultures, and political
units, which are not easily unified.
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Unit 1, Lesson 3
Mythical Origins and
Historical Realities of
European Geography
SW EDEN
Baltic Sea
L ITHUAN IA
RU SSIA
B E L ARU S
P O L AN D
G ER MA NY
C ZEC H
R EP U B L I C
U KR AIN E
SLOVAKIA
AU S T R I A
Essential Questions
•
What are some of the costs and benefits of various European nations’
geographical location?
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What is the mythical origin and historical reason for using the word Europe
to define the western part of the Eurasian continent?
Keywords
first partition of
Poland 1772
second partition of
Poland 1793
third partition of
Poland 1795
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Unit 1, Lesson 3
8
Set the Stage
Geography plays an important role in shaping history. Much of a nation’s potential for
greatness or mediocrity lies in its geographic location. Nations with ready access to
warm water ports have often enjoyed advantages over landlocked neighbors in terms
of trade and military effectiveness. Large mountains, deep rivers, and vast deserts offer
some countries natural borders that can be far more effective than any man-made barrier.
Fertile soil enables crops to grow to feed a hungry nation, while a more rocky terrain can
breed poverty or a martial spirit. European history is filled with examples of times when
a nation’s geographic location played a pivotal role in political, cultural, economic, and
military developments. Thus, history and geography are intimately entwined, and to
study one is to study both.
Costs and Benefits of Various Countries’ Location
Europe contains approximately 50 distinct countries, ranging in size from the
massive Russia, which covers 652,800 square miles (17,075,400 km²), to microstates like the Vatican City, which is enclosed on a mere 2 square miles (3 km²).
The geographical location, boundaries, and natural resources of each European
country bring with them a variety of costs and benefits. Some countries border the
vast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea or are protected by natural mountain
borders. Other nations are locked in the interior or have no natural borders. The
strength of a nation’s borders, along with its access to warm-water ports, can go a
long way toward determining its military, economic, and political status. Likewise,
while some countries have abundant natural resources or rich fertile soil, others
must struggle to survive in harsh conditions. People living in more geographically
blessed nations often enjoy a higher standard of living and health, which in turn
contributes to the overall strength of the nation. Consider for a moment various
European nations and the costs and benefits of their geographic locations.
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Why does Poland’s geographical location make it ripe for annexation by
other countries?
How has Russia’s limited access to warm-water ports influenced its foreign
policies and economic development?
What geographic advantages helped Great Britain become the first industrialized nation?
What are some of the relative costs and benefits of Britain’s geographic isolation from continental Europe?
What issues might have arisen from the close proximity of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and England?
How did Italy’s location account for the rise of the Renaissance?
Why did Protestantism flourish in northern Europe while Catholicism
remained firmly rooted in southern Europe?
Why are most European capitals are located on major rivers?
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Unit 1, Lesson 3
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How did France’s geographic location benefit Napoleon in his quest for
European domination?
What disadvantages might a landlocked power like Austria face over the
course of European history?
What advantages could a mountain stronghold like Switzerland enjoy over
the course of European history?
Poland (A Case Study of the Impact of Geographic Location)
While the geographic location of every country has its relative costs and benefits,
it is perhaps useful to focus on a single nation as a case study to more fully understand the impact of geography on history. Poland’s geographical location has had a
tremendous influence on its history and its relationship with neighboring nations.
One of the largest countries in central Europe, it covers 120,726 square miles
(312,679 km²) and includes numerous geographic regions, including mountains,
forests, deserts, and plains. Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech
Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania to the east;
and the Baltic Sea and a Russian enclave to the north. As you read the following
brief history of Poland, consider how its geographic location has influenced events
both positively and negatively.
Poland first emerged as a nation in the tenth century under the leadership
of the Piast dynasty (966–1385). Polish history traditionally begins in 966, when
Prince Mieszko I (c. 930–992) converted to Roman Catholicism and aligned his
nation with the culture of western Europe rather than with the Greek Orthodox
religion and the culture of eastern Europe. For more than four centuries, the Piast
dynasty ruled Poland successfully and with great tolerance. The nation soon boasted
a large minority population, including a sizable Jewish community. Poland, however, remained vulnerable due to its lack of natural borders. From 1240 to 1241,
the Mongols attacked Poland, but they were defeated by an alliance between the
Polish government and various Christian military orders. During the first half of
the thirteenth century, the nation engaged in a long struggle against the Teutonic
Knights over territorial rights in western Poland.
In order to combat the militant crusading order, a new Polish dynasty,
the Jagiellon (1385–1569), was established. The new dynasty united Poland
and Lithuania in 1385, after the Grand Duke Jagiello of Lithuania married the
Polish Queen Jagwiga. The newly created Polish-Lithuanian union defeated the
Teutonic Knights in 1410 at the battle of Grunwald (also known as the Battle of
Tannenberg). Yet despite this military victory, the new nation failed to create a
strong centralized government. By the end of the sixteenth century, the Polish
monarch had been reduced to an elected position that was dependent upon the
nobility. The nobles, to lessen central authority even further, increasingly selected
foreign princes to serve as the Polish constitutional monarch.
In 1569, legislative power was transferred entirely to the noble class, who
redesigned the nation as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795). A
constitutional monarchy remained in place, but the monarch served only as a
figurehead. During the sixteenth century, Poland experienced a “golden age” and
expanded its borders, briefly becoming the largest nation in Europe. But invasions
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9
10
Unit 1, Lesson 3
by Sweden and Russia in the early seventeenth century soon ravaged the country
and considerably reduced its territory. Still, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
remained a significant player in European politics until the end of the century,
Self-check
helping to defeat the Ottoman Turks during the Muslim invasion of Europe in
How
did
Prince Mieszko’s
1683. Over the course of the next century, however, Poland’s political and military
conversion
to Roman
power waned, a situation exasperated by an inflexible constitution that granted to
Catholicism
change
the
every noble veto power to stop parliamentary sessions.
course
of
Polish
history?
While other formerly great powers such as Spain and Sweden had been
allowed to settle peacefully into secondary status on the peripheries of Europe,
Poland’s territory was located at a strategic crossroads for northern Europe.
Lacking a strong government, Poland soon fell prey to rising European powers.
Throughout much of the eighteenth century, Poland maintained independence
first partition of
only by the good graces of Russia, which relied on the nation to act as a buffer
Poland, 1772 Poland
divided by Russia,
state between eastern and western Europe. In 1764, the Russian Empress Catherine
Prussia, and Austria;
the Great (r.1762–1795) awarded the Polish throne to a former favorite and lover,
30% of territory lost
Stanislaw Poniatoswki (r. 1764–1795). The tsarina expected Poniatoswki to reign
second partition of
as an obedient servant to the Russian crown. Instead, the king encouraged modPoland, 1793 Poland
redivided by Russia,
ernization and attempted to strengthen the Polish monarchy, decisions which
Prussia, and Austria;
were met with displeasure by all of Poland’s neighbors. Because Russia did not
nation reduced in size
have the resources to continue dominating Poland, Catherine the Great signed a
and influence
treaty with Prussia and Austria to divide the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
on the pretext of restoring order in the anarchic nation.
The first partition of Poland went into effect
in 1772 and cost the commonwealth 30 percent of
The First Partition of Poland, 1772
its territory. In some ways, however, this partition
effectively united the Polish people, forcing them
R
U
to put their political house in order to throw off
LIV
ON
their domineering neighbors. In 1791, the PolishIA
Baltic Sea
Lithuanian Parliament, or Sejm, produced Europe’s
first modern written constitution, influenced by
Vilinius
Gdańsk
the ideas of the Enlightenment and the example
P R U S S I A
of the newly created United States of America.
While the Polish constitution was never fully impleP O L AN D
Poznań
mented, it remained a shining beacon for later
Warsaw
generations of Polish reformers even as it angered
Kiev
many Polish nobles, who feared a further loss of
Kraków
political influence. It also threatened Poland’s
GALACIA
AU
neighbors, each of whom feared a revival of Polish
STR
IA
independence. Discontented nobles sent an urgent
0
100
200 mi
plea to Catherine the Great who, with the aid of
0
100 200 km
Prussia, willingly interceded. The constitution was
Annexed by Russia
Annexed by Austria
revoked, and Russia and Prussia carried out a
Annexed by Prussia
Boundary of Poland (prior to partition)
second partition in 1793. The second partition
significantly reduced Poland’s eastern territories
and made the nation little more than a rump state.
Polish territory annexed by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772.
1
S
A
S I
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Unit 1, Lesson 3
11
The Second Partition of Poland, 1793
The Third Partition of Poland, 1795
R U
S
Poznań
Kraków
0
0
100
100
RUTHENIA
S
Vilinius
Warsaw
0
200 mi
0
200 km
Boundary of Poland
(prior to partition)
Polish territory annexed by Russia and Prussia in 1793.
P O L AN D
Lublin
Kiev
TRIA
Annexed by Russia
Annexed by Prussia
U
I A
P R U S S
BELORUSSIA
POLAND
Warsaw
SOUTH
PRUSSIA
AU S
Minsk
Baltic Sea
I A
S S I A
P R U
Vilinius
R
COURLAND
S
Gdańsk
A
S I
Baltic Sea
A U S Kraków
TRIA
100
100
200 mi
200 km
Annexed by Russia
Annexed by Prussia
Annexed by Austria
Boundary of Poland
(prior to partition)
Polish territory annexed by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1795.
In an effort to retain statehood, a Polish revolt broke out in 1794. Led by
Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746–1817), a military officer and national hero who had
fought with distinction in the American Revolution, the revolt was overwhelmed
by more powerful enemies and the ceremonial Polish king was forced to abdicate.
A third partition was enacted in 1795. This final partition effectively wiped
Poland off the map. Over the outcry of other European nations, the destruction
of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was carried out swiftly and in a way that
profoundly upset the balance of power in Europe. Both Russia and the newly formed
German Confederation emerged as powerful nations whose influence threatened
France, Great Britain, and other European nations. Polish patriots would attempt
to revive their nation throughout the nineteenth century, but it was only in the
aftermath of World War I that an independent Poland was resurrected.
During World War II, Poland was invaded by both Soviet Russia and Nazi
Germany with devastating results. Of all the European countries involved in the
war, Poland lost the second-highest number of civilians; nearly 6 million people,
half of them Polish Jews, perished. Following the war, the Soviet Union instituted
a communist government in Poland that remained in power until 1990. Since
then, Poland’s economy and political clout has rebounded as the nation once again
aligned itself with the culture of western Europe. Poland joined the European Union
in 2004 and for now remains at peace with its neighbors. Yet Poland’s geographic
location at the crossroads of Europe and its lack of natural borders keep the nation
vulnerable and will continue to affect its future.
third partition of
Poland, 1795 total
dismantlement of
the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth by
Russia, Prussia, and
Austria
2
Self-check
Why wasn’t Poland
allowed to fade into a
comfortable secondary
status after its “golden
age” in the sixteenth
century?
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Unit 1, Lesson 3
12
The Myth of Europa
The origins of the word Europe, for which both the continent and its people were
named, comes from an ancient Greek myth about a maiden named Europa who is
seduced by the Greek god Zeus. The myth is believed to have originated sometime
in the second millennium B.C. The earliest reference to it can be found in Homer’s
ninth-century B.C. epic poem, the Illiad. The most complete surviving version was
written by the Roman poet Ovid (43 B.C.–A.D.18) in the Metamorphoses. Numerous
ancient and classical authors referenced the myth, and it was commemorated in
virtually every artistic medium of the ancient world. More recent artists including
Titian, Rembrandt, and Rubens were equally fascinated by the myth and painted
large works depicting the seduction of Europa.
According to Ovid, Europa was a highborn Phoenician woman who caught the
amorous attention of Zeus, king of the gods and Lord of Thunder. He transformed
himself into a snow-white bull and approached the beautiful maiden while she
picked flowers with her female attendants. Europa, remarking on the beauty of
the bull, soon clambered on to its back and was immediately carried off to the sea.
The bull swam to the island of Crete and transformed back into Zeus’s humanlike
form. He revealed his true identity to the maiden and declared her the first queen
of Crete. Following Zeus’s abduction of Europa—conventionally represented in the
visual arts as the “rape of Europa”—he gave her several presents, including a javelin
that never missed its mark. Zeus then rearranged the heavens to forever depict
him in his image as a white bull. This constellation today is easily identifiable as
Taurus. For centuries afterward, the connection between Crete and bulls remained
strong. Most famously, the Minoan dynasty of Crete acted as the caretaker for the
legendary bull-like Minotaur and its labyrinth lair.
But why was the land in the west of the huge Eurasian continent named after
this woman? Why was this story elevated so highly, when it appears to be little more
than a short episode among thousands of Greek myths? Herodotus, considered the
father of history, first asked these questions at the end of the fifth century B.C.E.
According to Herodotus, the earth was divided into three continents, all
named after women, and no one knew why this was so. Especially curious to
the ancient historian was the fact that Europa was of Asian birth, and yet her
name was used for the European continent. He could provide no clear answer
for this mystery and eventually concluded that the names were established by
custom. Modern historians generally agreed with Herodotus’s assessment that
custom and tradition linked the myth and the continent. Greeks and Romans
used the name Europe to distinguish themselves from Asian civilizations. The
name was further cemented by Charlemagne and other early medieval rulers,
who used the word Europeans to describe their own Christian populations.
3
Self-check
What is the mythical
origin of the word
Europe?
Extensions
•
Read Ovid’s Metamorphoses for the original myth of Europa.
•
Do an Internet search for The Rape of Europa paintings by Titian, Rembrandt,
and Rubens. What are some of the similarities and differences between these
paintings?
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Unit 1, Lesson 3
13
Summary
Geography has always played an important role in European history. From the
earliest of mankind’s myths to the modern wireless world, geography has helped
shape the destiny of the continent, its nations, and its ethnic groups. Focusing on
a single nation, such as Poland, allows the entwined relationship between geography and history to come into clear focus. Although Poland is a relatively large
nation with a sizable population, its lack of natural borders has proven to be a
serious vulnerability. Located at a crossroads of the European continent, its position
between Russia and Germany proved disastrous throughout the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Had Poland been situated in a more easily defended or more
easily ignored location, its history would have undoubtedly been very different.
Finally, while the relationship between Poland’s geography and Polish history is
clear, less obvious is the origin of the word Europe. The Greek myth of the seduction
of Europa acts as the etymological root and signifies a distinction between Asian
or Middle Eastern civilizations and those of westernmost Eurasia.
Looking Ahead
Modern European history traditionally begins with the Italian Renaissance. After
centuries of conquest and innovation by the ancient Greeks and classical Romans,
Europe descended into a “Dark Age” for almost a millennium. During this period,
Europeans lost much of their artistic, scientific, and technological skills as the
region was reduced to a patchwork of kingdoms constantly at war. However, in the
fourteenth century, Europe began a remarkable transformation. Italian city-states
grew enormously wealthy as merchant and banking families took advantage of the
Crusades and the rising international trade. With this wealth, the leaders of the
city-states began to patronize emerging artists, who rediscovered and invented an
astonishing number of artistic techniques. The ideals of the Italian Renaissance
soon spread across Europe like wildfire, sparking a new era that transformed
European society.
Self-Check Answers
1. This event marks the traditional beginning of
Polish history and aligned Poland with the culture
of Catholic western Europe rather than with that of
Greek Orthodox eastern Europe.
as a “buffer state” to protect them against rival
nations. These nations eventually annexed Polish
territory into their own states to increase their own
size and resource availability.
2. It was located at a convenient crossroads of
Europe, and the rising political powers of Russia,
Prussia, and Austria were eager to use Polish territory
3. The word Europe is taken from a Greek myth
about the god Zeus’s abduction of a maiden named
Europa.
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
The Catholic Church in
the Late Middle Ages
Essential Questions
Keywords
•
What happened to society in western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire?
absenteeism
•
Why did people feel such a connection to the Catholic Church?
•
Summarize what men like Hus and Wycliffe believed.
•
What was the Babylonian Captivity?
autonomy
conciliarism
indulgences
lay piety
medieval
monasticism
nepotism
papacy
pluralism
simony
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
15
Set the Stage
When Rome fell in the 400s, western Europe was left in chaos. Its political institutions
were shattered, and people were unsure where to turn in search of leadership. Into this
vacuum would step the only institution that survived the fall of the Roman Empire mostly
intact: the Roman Catholic Church. How would the church adapt to fill the void left by
Rome? It would need to become not only a religious structure, but a social and political
force as well.
The Middle Ages (or “medieval” in French) is a historical period that comes after
the classical period of ancient Greece and Rome and before the Renaissance. The
Middle Ages span more than a thousand years and are divided into three periods:
the early Middle Ages (c. 400 to 900), the High Middle Ages (c. 1000 to 1300), and
the late Middle Ages (c. 1300 to 1500).
medieval French term
meaning “middle ages”
The Rise of the Roman Catholic Church
in the Early Middle Ages
After Rome fell in the 400s, European life plunged into a period of uncertainty as
citizens grappled with political, social, and economic upheaval. One of the only
institutions that provided Europeans with some sense of stability was the Roman
Catholic Church. The church had an enormous impact on daily life for Europeans
in the early Middle Ages and started to gain authority and influence as it filled the
power vacuum that existed after the fall of Rome.
Church doctrine became increasingly focused on monasticism—an emphasis
on living as monks do by embracing poverty, chastity, charity, and the simple life.
Monasticism became associated with the ideal Christian life and it strengthened the
following and prestige of the Roman Catholic Church. Monasteries and convents spread
across Europe, carrying with them Christian ideals. Spreading the Christian doctrine
and converting the English and Germanic peoples to the Catholic faith became a primary activity of the church. The church had the Bible translated into the Gothic language
to help convert the eastern Germanic Goths. The western Germanic Franks also adopted
Christianity and became strong cooperators with and defenders of the papacy. Within
a century, many Anglo-Saxons identified themselves as Christians, as well.
Due to its expanding number of adherents, its growing power, and its hierarchical
administration, the Roman Catholic Church increasingly employed Europe’s best
and brightest minds. Life in the Middle Ages revolved around small villages, and the
local clergy and church soon stepped into whatever leadership roles were available.
Abbots, monks, and bishops enjoyed considerable power. In a time when formal
political divisions were weak, people often identified themselves as “Christians,”
rather than as citizens of a particular nation. The goals and ambitions of the church
took precedence over those of secular institutions, and the church developed political
and economic clout. Further, Catholics saw Rome as a holy city since St. Peter, one
monasticism embracing chastity,
poverty, and obedience
as the ideal way of life
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
16
of Jesus’ apostles, was martyred there. As Rome became an important religious center
led by the bishop of Rome—the pope—it also wielded considerable political power.
Rome did not fall under the authority of any emperor, so the papacy assumed a
secular leadership role and the pope enjoyed political and religious autonomy.
Criticism of the Roman Catholic Church
in the High Middle Ages
Papal power climaxed with the reign of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216), who established a centralized papal monarchy and expanded the power of the church. His reign
solidified the political power of the church while weakening its spiritual and moral
authority. Later popes extended this secularization and politicization even further by
establishing a papal court and making taxation of parishioners a permanent strategy
for raising funds. The increase in papal authority extended to internal power, as well.
Popes began making clerical appointments at all levels of the church hierarchy, which
diminished the power of the dioceses and led to criticism of the pope.
Church criticism wasn’t limited to the increasing power of the pope. As the power
and influence of the church grew, so too did the charges of corruption and hypocrisy.
Church appointments were often guided by nepotism—the favoring of family
members—and money. Simony, or the buying and selling of church appointments,
became widespread. Some church officials were criticized for absenteeism, or failing
to be present in the offices they served. Other church officials held and earned money
from multiple clerical appointments, an abuse called pluralism. The selling of
indulgences—having parishioners pay for the forgiveness of sins—sullied the moral
and spiritual clout of the church and outraged many Christians. Some church officials
faced criticism for living opulent lifestyles or engaging in unscrupulous sexual or
moral behavior, all while preaching the monastic values of poverty and chastity.
In England and Bohemia (now part of the modern Czech Republic), critics of the
church found leaders in John Wycliffe (c. 1330–1384) and John Hus (c. 1369–1415).
Wycliffe taught at Oxford University in England and wanted to reform the Catholic
Church. He was critical of the corruption within the church and disapproved of the
political power exerted by the papacy and the church hierarchy. He did not think
the church should be involved in land holding, but should be politically subservient to the monarchies. For Wycliffe, the Bible was the word of God and the key to
understanding the proper way to live. He believed that personal Bible study was critically important for every Christian, but the Bible was inaccessible to most because
it was written in Latin. Because the masses of English people lacked the ability to
read the Bible, their only knowledge of the book came from spoken readings made
by clergy. Wycliffe was determined to bring the Bible directly to the people, in their
own vernacular. Without first receiving approval from Catholic authorities, but with
help from some fellow reform-minded English scholars, Wycliffe created an English
translation of the Bible. The new Bible angered church authorities, who condemned
his unsanctioned Bible. But rural clerics and ordinary English people embraced the
Wycliffe Bible. Soon, a group of followers began disseminating the Bible across
England, and to the continent. Radical ideas began to spread that challenged the
traditional authority of the medieval church.
papacy anything to do
with the Catholic pope
autonomy to act alone
1
Self-check
What institution
provided stability after
the economic, social,
and political upheaval
caused by the fall of the
Roman Empire in the
fifth century B.C.E.?
nepotism the practice
of appointing family
members or relatives to
positions under one’s
own supervision
simony the practice
of paying money in
exchange for a position
of religious influence
absenteeism the situation of holding primary
spiritual responsibility for
a congregation but not
personally fulfilling it
pluralism the situation of holding primary
spiritual responsibility for
more than one congregation within a church
indulgence in Catholic
doctrine, a written document from a spiritual
authority that forgives
one’s sins without the
need for penance
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
Hus and his followers, called Hussites, shared
many of the same ideas. Hus was also a teacher,
but at the University of Prague in Bohemia. Like
Wycliffe, Hus condemned the corruption of the
church, especially the sale of indulgences. In On
the Church, he also took issue with the power of
the papacy, noting that religious authority rests
in scripture, traditions, and morality. Hus criticized the church for owning vast tracts of land
and operating as a harsh landlord. Hus’s ideas
also drew the ire of the church, which called the
reformer before the Council of Constance on
the charges of heresy. Church leaders promised
him fair treatment for his cooperation, but once
before the council, Hus was found guilty of the
charges and burned at the stake in 1415. Hus’s
execution created outrage and ignited the Hussite
Wars, which lasted for several years.
Additional criticism of the church came
from mystics such as Meister Eckhart (1260–
1327) and Thomas à Kempis (1379–1471).
Kempis put forth his ideas in Imitation of Christ,
which became the most popular religious book
of its time. Neither Eckhart nor Kempis openly
broke with the church. Rather, they promoted
lay piety. They believed that connecting with
God did not require church sacraments or worThe execution of John Hus
ship services. According to Eckhart and Kempis,
the faithful could find God through spirituality,
actions, and feelings in their daily lives. Martin Luther later shared some of these
same ideas.
Members of the laity who supported church reform also found an outlet in
Gerard Groote (1340–1384) and his Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life.
Also known as Modern Devotion, this movement started in the Netherlands and
gained a large following, especially in northern Europe. The movement operated
as a community where lay people could develop their faith based on simple living,
tolerance, and service. Members did not take vows like members of a monastery
or convent, but instead focused on education, charity, and living a life modeled
after the life of Christ.
Challenges for the Roman Catholic Church
in the Late Middle Ages
17
lay piety people who
were not priests, nuns,
or monks but behaved
as such
2
Self-check
Identify church practices
that generated public
criticism.
Various internal crises coincided with the rising criticism of the Roman Catholic
Church and contributed to a decline in the authority and prestige of the church
in the late Middle Ages.
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18
Unit 1, Lesson 4
The Avignon Papacy
When Pope Benedict XI died in 1304, a French bishop became
Pope Clement V (r. 1305–1314). Hoping to increase French influence over the church, King Philip IV of France, often known as
Philip the Fair (r. 1285–1314), convinced Clement to move the
papal headquarters from Rome, which had been the center of
church power for centuries, to Avignon, a city in southern France.
For the next seven decades, Avignon became the seat of the papacy,
which was strongly influenced by the French monarchy, just as
Philip had planned. The period is often called the Babylonian
Captivity of the papacy, a reference to the Old Testament story
in which the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah were held
captive in Babylon during the sixth century B.C.E.
Although the Avignon papacy increased its administrative efficiency during its years in France, the period damaged the church’s
The Palace of the Popes Avignon, France
power and ability to raise money. Rome had always been the seat
of power for the Catholic Church, but the leadership’s move to
France robbed the city of its historical and traditional power. Additionally, the French
government enjoyed significant influence over the church, which further diminished
the power of the church and its prestige in the eyes of the people. During these
years, the church granted 113 of 134 new cardinalships to Frenchmen. The church
also struggled to raise money during the Babylonian Captivity since its traditional
funding came from the estates of Rome. The city suffered a decline in visitation with
the pope residing in France. To compensate for the lost revenue, Clement increased
papal taxes, especially annates, which were the first-year incomes of church benefices.
John XXII (r. 1316–1334) was the most powerful of the seven Avignon popes
and was responsible for many of the improvements in the administrative efficiency
of the church. He modeled papal authority on the successful European monarchies
Self-check
and made reforms to bring the church more in line with the growing money-based,
What approach did
rather than land-based, economy. Pope John XXII attempted to return the papacy
Thomas à Kempis
to Rome, but he faced opposition from Emperor Louis IV (r. 1314–1347), whose
advocate for lay followers
ascendency to the German throne he opposed in 1314. In response, Louis IV declared
who wanted to access
an antipope. The feud ended when John abandoned his assertion that Louis IV
God?
was subordinate to him. John was not able to return to Italy, and his successor
Benedict XII (r. 1334–1342) had no intention of trying to do so.
The church’s financial woes continued. The Hundred Years’ War broke out in
1337, pitting France against England. Because the English considered the Roman
Catholic Church to be on the side of the French, they passed laws that hindered the
church’s ability to raise money or make clerical appointments in England. France
also had its own laws that made it difficult for the church to raise money. Pope
Clement VI (r. 1342 to 1352) increased the sale of indulgences and expanded the
practice to include selling indulgences to surviving family members for the sins of
the already deceased. These practices—along with the lavish lifestyles the Avignon
popes enjoyed—fueled the church’s reputation for corruption. To many, the church
was more concerned with power and bureaucracy than with salvation and spirituality.
3
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
19
The Babylonian Captivity finally ended with Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378), who
moved the papacy back to Rome in 1377, thanks in part to a visit by a Dominican
mystic, Catherine of Siena. Although the papacy had been restored to Rome, the
challenges and disagreements within the Roman Catholic Church were far from over.
The Western Schism
With the papacy back in Rome after a period of 70 years, the Italians demanded an
Italian pope when Gregory died the year after the move. The predominantly French
cardinals knew that failing to elect an Italian pope could cost them their lives, so
they obliged, electing Urban VI (r. 1378–1389). Urban wanted to reform and clean
up the church, and he called for an end to church practices that rewarded corruption and deceit, at the same time that he denounced opulence and overindulgence
among the church’s elites. When Urban went so far as to propose eliminating the
cardinalships, the outraged cardinals called for the return of the papacy to Avignon.
Thirteen cardinals broke away from the pope and elected a French pope, Clement
VII (r. 1378–1398), who resided in Avignon and was the French king’s cousin. This
period, in which two different popes claimed legitimacy, created a split in the
church that is often called the Western Schism, or the Great Schism.
The schism continued as the church tried to figure out how to reconcile the
stalemate. Both popes maintained their legitimacy and refused to concede to the
other or call a council that would likely depose one of them. Countries across
Europe divided their support for the papacies based on political allegiances. French
allies supported the Avignon pope, while England and its allies supported Urban
VI in Rome. While national alliances were clear, individual Europeans did not
know which pope to follow and the schism damaged the prestige of the church.
Because only the pope could convene a church council, and because neither
pope was going to make such a personally risky move, the church needed a new
bureaucratic mechanism. Conciliar theory developed to fill this need. Conciliarists
maintained that a representative council was needed to provide oversight of the
pope, who did not represent the whole church but simply acted as its elected leader.
Proponents of the Conciliar Movement believed that the pope’s primary responsibility was to maintain the unity of the church. They did not believe the pope to be
infallible, and they urged the pope to share leadership responsibilities. Representative
councils, conciliarists argued, would be better equipped to handle reforms within
the church than a pope acting alone.
Marsiglio of Padua was one of the most well-known advocates of conciliar
theory, and he presented his views in Defender of the Peace. Marsiglio argued that
the church should be less involved in secular matters and more concerned with
spirituality. He believed it was the people who gave the church and clergy its
authority, not God. These ideas found a wide audience during the Great Schism.
The conciliar argument prevailed and cardinals from both papacies attended
the Council of Pisa in 1409 and 1410. They elected Alexander V and deposed the
dual popes in Rome and Avignon. However, neither of the existing popes complied, which left the church with three popes and no solution in sight. Alexander
died shortly after his election, and John XXIII (r. 1410–1415) succeeded him. John
called another council, the Council of Constance, from 1414 to 1417. The council
4
Self-check
What idea did the
Conciliar theory
promote?
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
20
elected yet another pope, Martin V (r. 1417–1431) after each of the three existing
popes either stepped down or was successfully deposed.
The council and the end of the Great Schism were victories for conciliarism,
but the church had suffered a major setback. Together, the Babylonian Captivity
and the Western Schism weakened the church and shook the faith of many believers. Europeans who looked to the church for stability and leadership found only
uncertainty and doubt during this turbulent period. The Conciliar Movement
ended with Pope Martin V, who disbanded the Council of Constance and was not
interested in further reforms. However, the movement’s legacy lasted much longer
as it tested the faith of many Christians and called into question the divine authority of the pope.
conciliarism a belief
that a representative
council could control
the behavior of popes
Extension
•
Read Pope Boniface VIII’s Defense of Papal Supremacy. Upon what premises
does Boniface rest his argument for a strong papacy?
Summary
The Roman Catholic Church was one of the few remaining powerful institutions
after the ancient Roman Empire failed in the 400s. As such, people clung to the
church. The papacy’s power grew as people looked to the pope to be a leader in a
world where real political authority was largely absent. A series of popes expanded
the church’s authority and influence by centralizing power in Rome and involving
themselves in secular affairs like the Hundred Years’ War. Many people criticized
Rome’s increasing nonreligious actions. Men like John Hus and John Wycliffe
gained large groups of followers, as did mystics like Meister Eckhart and Thomas
à Kempis. Toward the end of the Middle Ages, several events occurred that weakened the Catholic Church. The Babylonian Captivity, during which the papal
court left Italy for France, damaged papal prestige. The Great Schism—the era of
two popes—confused common people since they didn’t know which pope to follow. This confusion led to the Conciliar Movement, which sought to control the
behavior of the popes through representative councils. The Conciliar Movement
ultimately failed, but many of the complaints against the church would eventually
be adopted by the Reformation.
Looking Ahead
•
Feudalism served as a unifying and organizing force for Europeans after the
fall of the Roman Empire. The Black Death killed a third of the European
population and altered the economic, psychological, and social spheres of
European life.
•
Universities developed and flourished in the late Middle Ages.
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Unit 1, Lesson 4
21
Self-Check Answers
1. The Roman Catholic Church provided stability
3. Thomas à Kempis advocated spiritual actions,
after the economic, social, and political upheaval
caused by the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth
century C.E.
2. Nepotism, simony, absenteeism, indulgences, and
pluralism were all church practices that generated
public criticism.
feelings, and personal connections to God rather
than ritual.
4. The Conciliar theory promoted the idea that a
representative council should oversee the papacy
because a single leader could not fully represent
church membership and because the Western
Schism had diminished the pope’s authority.
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
Feudalism and the
Black Death
Essential Questions
•
What were the fundamental features of the feudal system?
•
What were the causes and consequences of the Black Death in Europe?
•
Why did universities and scholasticism rise during the High Middle Ages?
Keywords
anti-Semitism
asceticism
feudalism
fief
manor
primogeniture
taille
vassal
vassalage
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
23
Set the Stage
After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 400s, Europe struggled to recover some
semblance of a social structure. The societal framework of ancient Rome disappeared,
and in its place a new type of society developed. During Rome’s collapse, people fled
the cities and regrouped in small villages. Feudalism and manorialism developed in this
new social structure and helped western Europeans reorder their disrupted lives. These
new systems provided protection and a sense of safety in an unsettled time. As society
rebuilt itself, some scholars and theologians started looking into the past for knowledge
and inspiration. Ancient works were rediscovered and scholasticism developed alongside
Europe’s first universities, which filled the void left by the collapse of Rome’s educational
system. Europe had rebuilt itself after the collapse of Rome, but European society in
general faced a catastrophic setback when the Black Death descended on it in the
fourteenth century.
The Rise of Feudalism in Western Europe
Feudalism developed in the aftermath of the fall of Rome in the 400s. People fled
the cities—where the government, the military, the police, and the economic system
had collapsed—and settled in small countryside villages. The Catholic Church was
one of the only institutions still intact after the fall of Rome, and people looked
for new ways to find stability, protection, and structure. The system that developed to fill this need was later called feudalism. Feudalism, like most historical
developments, was not a monolithic system—it varied with time and place after
its emergence in the late ninth century until its decline in the fourteenth century.
However, the basis for all feudal systems was the same: powerful lords provided
protection to subjects in return for service and loyalty.
The feudal system that developed in Germanic states in the early Middle Ages
was called vassalage. In this arrangement, a lord granted land, called a fief, to
a vassal, or knight. In return, that vassal pledged his loyalty and military service
to the lord. The simple ceremony and oath is described by the following passage
from medieval law:
feudalism a political,
societal, military, and
economic system that
prevailed in the Middle
Ages in Europe
vassalage a system
whereby men (vassals) swore their loyalty
to a lord or prince in
exchange for land
fief the land granted in
exchange for service to a
lord, usually military
vassals a person
granted an estate in
return for accepting
the obligation to render
services to a lord
The man should put his hands together as a sign of humility, and place them between
the two hands of his lord as a token that he vows everything to him and promises
faith to him; and the lord should receive him and promise to keep faith with him.
Then the man should say, ‘Sir, I enter your homage and faith and become your man
by mouth and hands, and I swear and promise to keep faith and loyalty to you
against all others, and to guard your rights with all my strength.’
If a vassal granted some of his land to another man, he too became a lord,
but he remained a vassal to his benefactor. In this system, every man was
beholden to another man, except, of course, for the king. Landholding was the
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
24
measure of wealth in this society because the use of
coins had diminished with the fall of Rome. Lords
did generate additional income by collecting fees
from the vassals for knighting their eldest sons or
from dowries for marriage of their daughters. The
feudal agreement was based on mutual loyalty and
trust. If a lord did not look after his vassals—by failing to provide land or protection in court, for
instance—the contract broke down. If the vassal
failed to fulfill his obligations, the lord could retract
his fief. Although fiefs were essentially loaned to the
vassal, it became common for a vassal’s eldest son
to inherit the fief by the end of the tenth century.
This practice of inheritance by the family’s eldest
son is called primogeniture.
Not every man in medieval society could be a lord
or a vassal. The rest of society was incorporated by
the system called manorialism, which provided the
economic structure of feudal society. Lords built large
manors as the center of their agricultural operations, Peasants working in the fields
and serfs worked the land. These serfs came from the
peasant class, which accounted for the majority of society. Many serfs gave up
some of the freedoms they had as free peasants in exchange for the protection
offered by a lord. Serfs were affiliated with the land itself and not necessarily with
the lord. If the land was sold, the serfs remained with the fief and became the
subjects of the new owner. Serfs were not slaves—they could not be bought or sold
themselves—but they remained dependant on their lords and had to ask permission to leave the fief. In exchange for the lord’s protection, serfs not only worked
the land but also paid rents for access to common land, such as pastureland, with
the understanding that a portion of their production would go to the lord. Serfs
also had to pay tithes to the local church. Some free peasants did exist, but they
were not in the majority.
primogeniture when
a fief is inherited by the
eldest son of a lord
manor village farm
owned by a lord
Scholasticism and Europe’s First Universities
During the High Middle Ages, scholasticism and universities developed as teachers
and students organized themselves in formal institutions of learning. Much of this
new intellectual vitality found roots in the discovery of the knowledge of ancient
Greek philosophers, such as Plato, Euclid, and Aristotle. Yet Europe’s scholars would
have never had access to these writings had Arab thinkers and philosophers not
preserved the ancient manuscripts and, in some cases, extended the work with
their own studies and commentary after the fall of Rome. The Arabs had translated
the works into Arabic, and when the manuscripts arrived in Europe, monks and
scholars translated and preserved the works into Latin. European intellectualism
and learning flourished with this influx of knowledge, and the first universities
soon formed, first in Bologna in 1158, then in Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. These
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
25
universities focused on studies in law, medicine, and theology. All intellectual
activity was conducted in Latin. The works of Aristotle had a profound influence
on both the subject matter and the method of learning in these new universities.
Students analyzed and commented on primary source material and studied logic
and reasoning. While this rediscovery of ancient knowledge inspired intellectual growth
throughout Europe, it also raised an unsettling question. How could this ancient
Greek and Arab knowledge be reconciled with Christian theology? Some thinkers
viewed the new knowledge as a threat to Christianity, but scholastic philosopher
Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) set out to dispel these fears. In his famous work
Summa Theologica, Aquinas not only attempted to outline the sum total of Christian
theology, but also to assure people that faith and reason could coexist because
they both originated with God. Aquinas’s work provided the intellectual freedom
for thinkers to pursue questions of logic and reason. His work also proved to be
extremely influential to the Catholic Church.
The Black Death Descends on Europe
By 1300, Europeans had accomplished a great deal since the fall of the Roman
Empire. Universities provided centers of education, while government, economic,
and religious institutions created stability, order, and meaning for a growing populace. However, Europe faced a tragic setback when the bubonic plague arrived in the
mid-fourteenth century. The plague, known as the Black Death, descended upon
Europe at a time when the population was already weakened by extreme famine
that began around 1300. That was when the European population, which had grown
significantly between 1000 and 1300 thanks to an abundant food supply, started
to out-pace agricultural production. People faced job and food shortages. Once the
plague set in, disease and famine each exacerbated the effects of the other and,
together, caused the death of up to half of all Europeans in the fourteenth century.
The bubonic plague first entered Europe through Italian seaports and probably
came from central Asia. It spread along trade routes. The plague reached Sicily in
1347 and moved north, making it to France and then England in 1348. By 1349,
the plague had reached Norway, from which it then spread into eastern Europe and
Russia. At the time the plague hit Europe, doctors had little idea what to do with
their patients or what was going on inside their bodies. Today, we know that the
disease was carried by fleas and caused by the Pasteurella pestis bacteria. Thousands
of flea-infested rats traveled around Europe with trade caravans and in the cargo
holds of ships, and any person who came in contact with these rats or the fleas
they carried was in danger of being infected. Once infected, people experienced a
high fever, pain, and vomiting. Victims also developed swollen lymph nodes (or
“buboes”), which filled with fluid and turned black. These buboes eventually burst,
and death followed shortly thereafter. The grim and horrific disease progressed
rapidly—the victim usually died within three or four days of infection.
The death toll attributed to the plague was immense: anywhere from 25 to
50 percent of Europe’s population perished between 1347 and 1351. Italy, where
the disease entered Europe, was hardest hit and may have lost up to 60 percent
1
Self-check
Explain both feudalism
and manorialism.
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
26
The burial of plague victims
of its population. The plague killed entire towns throughout the continent. The
extraordinary death toll likely resulted from the presence of a pneumonic plague at
the same time as the bubonic plague. The pneumonic plague was transmitted via
the air through coughing or sneezing and was easily spread from person to person.
Living conditions in fourteenth-century Europe fostered the spread of both types
of plague. Many people lived in close proximity to others and in crowded, filthy
conditions. Personal hygiene practices such as bathing were very limited, making
it easy for disease to spread.
The Black Death had profound effects on European philosophy, religion, and
economics. Many people came to view their world differently after facing the
possibility of such a quick and horrendous death. Some became fascinated with
death, and art and culture reflected this morbid fascination in the danse macabre
style. Literally the “dance of death,” this morbid style in art found wide use in the
paintings of the day. The paintings depicted everyday scenes where people intermingled with skeletons, reminders that death was never far away. Some people
responded by trying to live for the moment, knowing it could all be gone in an
instant. They took part in taboo activities and renounced religious piety in favor
of indulgence and immediate satisfaction: “Eat, drink, and be merry” served as
their motto. Giovanni Boccaccio summarized the outlook of these people in the
preface to his Decameron: “. . . at the least inkling of something that suited them,
they ran wild in other people’s houses, and there was no one to prevent them, for
everyone had abandoned all responsibility for his belongings as well as for himself,
considering his days are numbered.”
Other Europeans responded to the grim realities of the plague by strengthening their religious faith rather than renouncing it. Some people believed the
2
Self-check
Describe the origins of
the Black Death
in Europe.
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
plague must be a punishment from God for man’s sins, and they turned to a life
of piety and restraint or, in some cases, extreme asceticism. One particularly
zealous group was the flagellants, who travelled from town to town whipping
themselves in penance and offering themselves as martyrs for the sins of the
world. Pope Clement VI condemned the practice by 1349 and ordered the suppression of the movement. However, flagellants continued to appear with plague
outbreaks into the fifteenth century.
Many of the flagellants were anti-Semitic and actively persecuted European
Jews. Anti-Semitism emerged in response to the Black Death because some
people wrongly believed the disease was caused by Jews poisoning the drinking
wells. Many Jews were killed, especially those in the area along the Rhine River,
and others were exiled. In Germany, more than 60 Jewish communities were
completely destroyed when all their inhabitants were murdered. Some Jews fled
to eastern Europe and never returned. Anti-Semitism arose from people’s fears
and was not officially condoned by governments or religious institutions. The
pope issued two papal bulls in 1348 condemning the murder and persecution
of the Jews.
The Catholic Church, whose priests ministered to many of the sick and presided over the burials of many of the dead, lost a large number of clergy to the
Black Death, which diminished the church’s influence and outreach capabilities.
People also began to doubt the church when it became clear it could do nothing
to halt the destructive spread of the plague. The fact that the plague hit Europe
during the Babylonian Captivity served to weaken the power and prestige of the
church even further.
The plague produced varying effects on European economies. On one hand,
the severe labor shortages hurt everyone by further reducing the already meager
agricultural production. On the other hand, fewer workers meant higher wages for
those who were able to work—both as farmers and skilled artisans. The cost of most
goods and services decreased because the extremely high mortality rates led to a
surplus of many everyday goods, but luxury and manufactured goods became more
expensive. The standard of living actually rose for those who escaped the plague.
The plague also sparked some economic and technological advances, including
improved navigation techniques that allowed traders to reach more distant lands
that might be left unscathed by the Black Death. Medical advances—such as effective quarantine measures—also developed because of the plague.
While workers generally saw income rise during this period, income for lords
decreased because they were not able to charge high rents to their vassals and had
to pay higher wages to workers. The aristocracy responded in two ways. First, they
turned from labor-intensive agriculture, such as grain farming, to activities like
sheep herding, which required few workers. They also developed legislation to
stem the increasing wages. In England, Parliament passed the Statute of Laborers,
which reset wages at their preplague levels. With the power of the lords diminished, European monarchs were generally able to further consolidate and secure
their power, especially as they founded professional armies to replace the lords’
armies of knights.
27
asceticism the doctrine
that a person can attain
a high spiritual and
moral state by practicing
self-denial, self-mortification, and the like
anti-Semitism hostility toward Jews for
religious, racial, or
ethnic reasons
3
Self-check
Where was the first
important university?
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
28
Peasants faced their own hardships in response to the plague, especially in the
following century. Since lords had fewer workers available to them, they freed fewer
serfs and demanded more forced labor out of the serfs they had. As wage restrictions came into effect and new taxes were levied on the peasants in the years after
the plague, their economic conditions declined. In France, the taille was a direct
tax on the peasants that presented a severe hardship. In response to such conditions, many peasants revolted, including those in France and England in 1358 and
1381, respectively.
Doctors had no cure for the plague in the fourteenth century and simply had
to let the disease run its course. Isolation and quarantine were the only effective
ways to avoid the plague and stop its spread. Although the disease had largely
disappeared by 1351, it continued to reappear every generation for the rest of the
fourteenth century and then throughout the fifteenth century, although less often.
These recurrences made it difficult for many areas to regain the population levels
that they had before the plague; most only started to do so by 1500.
taille French term
for a direct tax on the
peasantry
Extension
•
Read Giovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron and compare the characters’
experience of the Black Death with calamities today in terms of approach,
treatment, and circumstances.
Summary
After Rome fell in the 400s, Europe was in desperate need of a new way to organize
society. Feudalism provided this organization and structure. Feudalism was a complex array of obligations. A land-owning lord gave a fief to a vassal, who was then
able to work the land and provide help to the lord when needed. If he was lucky,
the vassal became powerful enough to become a lord himself and have his own
vassals. Manorialism was the economic foundation for the feudal system. During
the High Middle Ages, universities developed as Europeans rediscovered the works
of ancient scholars. These works, saved by Arab scholars and subsequently translated
into Latin by European monks and scholars, helped European students learn how
to reason. Thomas Aquinas led the scholastic philosophers and worked to show
that faith and reason were not antagonistic. The Black Death, which made its way
to Europe in 1347, delivered European society a severe setback. The population,
already weakened by overpopulation and famine, was especially susceptible to the
bubonic plague. One-quarter to one-half of Europe’s population was killed, and
the society that emerged was very different from the preplague world of western
Europe. Most Europeans had one of two responses to the Black Death: they turned
to religion and faith to guide their actions or they indulged in the pleasures of the
world since the next day might be their last.
Looking Ahead
As conditions worsened for the peasants, especially with the increased burden of
direct taxation, revolts occurred across Europe. Conflict and power struggles plagued
European states at a time when instability and hardship already ran rampant because
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Unit 1, Lesson 5
29
of troubles within the Roman Catholic Church and the devastating Black Death.
England and France descended into war in 1337. Although this conflict, fought
entirely on French soil, was called the Hundred Years’ War, it lasted over a century.
England dominated the conflict until a young girl named Joan of Arc helped turn
the tide in favor of the French. While England and France were embroiled in war,
the Holy Roman Empire to the east faced its own problems, both with its member
states and the Roman Catholic Church.
Self-Check Answers
their jurisdiction. The manor house was the main
1. Feudalism was a political system in which
nobles are granted the use of their land (land that
belongs to the king) in exchange for their loyalty,
military service, and protection of the people who
live on their land. Manorialism was a system of
rural economics during the Middle Ages in which
lords held legal and economic power and received
obligatory contributions from the peasants under
dwelling on the lord of the manor’s fief.
2. Most scholars believe the Black Death originated
in Asia. It traveled along trade routes, entering Italy
through port cities and spreading to the rest of
Europe.
3. Bologna
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
Peasant Revolts, the
Hundred Years’ War, and
the Holy Roman Empire
Essential Questions
Keywords
•
What advantages did France have over England at the start of the war? In
spite of these advantages, what happened?
dauphin
•
Describe the reasons for the peasant revolts in both France and England.
ecclesiastical
•
Who were Charles VII and Joan of Arc? How are they linked to one another historically?
•
Describe at least three results of the Hundred Years’ War.
•
How did Holy Roman Emperors acquire their position?
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
Set the Stage
In 1337, longstanding tensions between France and England came to a head, and the
Hundred Years’ War began over who had the right to sit on the French throne. Both
sides introduced many new weapons and tactics that undermined feudal warfare and
the premier status of the medieval knight. In addition, strong nationalist sentiments grew
in both France and England. The war precluded trade, and governments had to impose
heavy taxes on peasants to pay for the war. Those taxes led to peasant uprisings. England
lost most of its continental holdings in the conflict with France and subsequently turned
its focus to maritime supremacy. English nobles soon fought a civil war that ushered in
the Tudor dynasty. The French lost a significant percentage of its population to the war.
Meanwhile, the Holy Roman Empire struggled to keep its territories under control as it
fought not only with its subjected states, but also with the Roman Catholic Church.
The Hundred Years’ War and Peasant Revolts
The Hundred Years’ War officially began in 1337 over a dispute for the French
throne and a contested piece of land in the southwest of France called the Duchy
of Aquitaine. The long-lasting conflict pitted the French against the English and
had its roots in the previous century, when the English occupied the Duchy of
Aquitaine. In 1259, the French and English signed the Treaty of Paris, which formalized this unique relationship. The king of England, by holding the French land,
officially became a vassal to the king of France. This tenuous relationship more or
less worked until French and English tensions mounted over the contested French
throne in the 1320s and 1330s.
In 1328, King Charles IV, Philip the Fair’s son, died without an heir, thus ending the Capetian dynasty in France. Philip VI, who was Philip the Fair’s nephew
and the first of the Valois dynasty, gained the French throne, but England’s King
Edward III claimed that he was the legitimate heir to the throne. Edward was the
closest living male heir to the throne since his mother was Queen Isabella, the
sister of France’s King Charles IV. The French barons rebuked Edward’s claim by
arguing that the throne could not be passed down through a female heir. Edward
III’s claim to the throne remained idle until French king Philip VI attempted to
gain the Duchy of Aquitaine from the English in 1337. Edward III considered this
action a violation of the 1259 Treaty of Paris and declared war on the French in
1337. Edward III also maintained that he must take the French throne in order to
protect his rightful territory. These events, along with tensions surrounding the
English domination of French Flanders through the wool trade and France’s support for Scottish independence, sparked the Hundred Years’ War, a conflict that
would rage for more than a century before finally ending in 1453.
The Hundred Years’ War was fought in France and, to a limited extent, by
the two navies in the English Channel. The war lasted so long, in part, because
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31
Unit 1, Lesson 6
32
Philipe VI pays homage to Edward III.
it turned into a French civil war, as well as a war between the two rival western
European powers. The English dominated most of the war—they won key battles at
Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt—despite France’s apparent advantages. Among the
advantages that France enjoyed were a larger population and more wealth than its
neighbor across the English Channel. Moreover, since the battles were fought on
French soil, the French didn’t have to worry about supply lines or transportation
logistics. However, the French monarchs made poor decisions, both strategically
and economically, that resulted in military and political defeats. Also, like their
English counterparts, French nobles were anxious to reap the spoils of battle to
increase their own power. Unlike the English nobles, the French were willing to
do so even at the expense of the monarch, and their behavior contributed to the
internal struggles France faced during the century-long conflict.
Truce and stalemate marked the first decade of the war, but the first major battle
took place in 1346 at Crecy in the area of northern France known as Normandy.
English troops, led by Edward III, invaded Normandy and were met by Philip VI’s
forces. It was a decisive victory for the English, who used their longbowmen to
defeat the French cavalry. Although the longbow didn’t have the same accuracy as
the French crossbow, soldiers could reload it much more quickly. For every arrow
launched by the French, the English could fire off three. The English took the port
city of Calais, which they held for the next 200 years. Fourteenth-century French
historian Jean Froissart described the battle in his Chronicles: “The English continued
to shoot into the thickest part of the crowd, wasting none of their arrows. They
impaled or wounded horses and riders, who fell to the ground in great distress,
unable to get up again (because of the weight of their armor) without the help of
several men.”
1
Self-check
Over what issues
did the Hundred Years’
War start?
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
After six years of relative peace—a truce forced largely by the Black Death—the
English dealt another serious blow to the French at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 in
west-central France. The defeat was a particularly catastrophic one for the French
since the English captured France’s King John II, along with approximately 2,000
soldiers. The defeat and capture of the French king plunged French society into
disarray and sparked peasant revolts after France had to pay a hefty ransom for
the return of its monarch. The Estates General tried to enact government reforms
similar to those set forth by the Magna Carta in England in 1215, but infighting
among the estates halted any attempt at establishing a representative monarchy.
The English-dominated Peace of Bretigny in 1360 resolved one of the initial
causes of the war, but it did not end the fighting. With the upper hand in the war,
the English made the French agree to the renunciation of Edward III’s vassal status, even though he would keep the land holdings in France. The agreement also
resolved the dispute over the French throne because Edward III withdrew his claim.
The rest of the war focused on the English land holdings within France’s borders.
After battles in the 1360s and 1370s came a period of relative peace, partly due
to the peasant revolts and internal problems within each country; the next major
engagement took place in 1415 at the Battle of Agincourt in Flanders in northern
France. Henry V (r. 1413–1422) led the greatly outnumbered English troops, while
Charles d’Albert led the French. Despite their numerical disadvantage, the English
troops of longbowmen defeated the French once again. The defeat prompted the
Burgundians to join the fight on the side of the French, although this alliance lasted
only a short time. When the Duke of Burgundy was assassinated, his son became
convinced it was at the hands of the French, and the Burgundians rejoined the
war effort on the side of the English.
With the momentum still on their side, the English forced another peace on
the French. The 1420 Treaty of Troyes declared the English king as the rightful heir
to the French throne upon the death of Charles VI. The agreement meant all of
France and England would come under the power of the English monarchy.
However, Charles VI’s son came forward as the French dauphin (the heir to the
French throne) with the backing of many of the French people and a young French
peasant girl named Joan of Arc.
Although the English dominated almost the entire first century of the war,
the momentum shifted toward the French in 1429, thanks in large part to Joan of
Arc (1412–1431). From a young age, Joan heard voices talking to her. She believed
they were the voices of the saints. She knew that France needed help to get the
English off of French soil and out of French affairs. Joan approached the uncrowned
Charles VII in 1428 and convinced him to let her accompany the French troops
who would soon try to end the English siege of Orleans. She and the troops arrived
at Orleans in April 1429, and the English surrendered within two weeks. Charles
VII was crowned king in July 1429. The English were weakened by disease and
starvation, but their surrender at Orleans marked the turning point in the war.
It also made Joan a hero to the French and a target for the English. Troops from
Burgundy, then allied with the English, captured Joan of Arc in 1430 and sold her
33
2
Self-check
What advantage did
the English longbow
have over the
French crossbow?
dauphin the eldest son
of the king of France
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
34
to the English. The English courts put her on
trial for witchcraft, condemned her as a heretic, and burned her at the stake in 1431. She
was 19 years old. However, a new trial in 1456
cleared her name, and the Catholic Church
canonized her in 1920.
After the siege of Orleans, the French
started gaining back land occupied by the
English. Fighting in the north of France ended
in 1450 with the decisive French victory at
the Battle of Formigny. The last battle of the
Hundred Years’ War took place at Castillon
in Bordeaux in 1453. The battle was a final
attempt by the English to retain some territory
in France, but the French used the cannon to
hold off the English troops and emerged victorious. The war was over. England lost all of
its holdings in France except for the town of
Calais in Flanders along the English Channel.
Both countries faced significant consequences from the war. France had been devastated, especially its farmland and wool trade.
The aristocracy continued to tax the peasantry in order to recover wartime expenses.
However, many members of the French arisJoan of Arc
tocracy jockeyed for power in the chaos after
the war, so the French king exempted nobles and clergy from taxation in an effort to
keep them content and out of politics. The French king also maintained a standing
professional army. England also had to tax its peasantry. In both countries, the need
to rebuild the economy put more and more responsibility on the parliaments, and
representative government strengthened in the years after the war. Both countries
also experienced a wave of nationalism. Propaganda and popular literature fueled
these sentiments. Authors wrote in the vernacular, rather than Latin, and reached a
wider audience. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales in England and Francois Villon’s Grand
Testament in France were two of these nationalistic works.
Peasant Unrest
General discontent among the peasants erupted into peasant revolts in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. One of the longest lasting revolts occurred in Flanders
on the northern coast of France. Flanders was a major textile manufacturing area,
and revolts in the region lasted for more than five years. They started in 1323 and
were a response to the increasing monetary burdens, through both taxing and
tithing, placed on the peasantry. Edward III also threatened to cut off the English
wool supply to Flanders, which prompted many Frenchmen in Flanders to openly
support Edward III’s claim to the French throne. Peasants burned and pillaged the
castles of the aristocracy but were eventually crushed by French forces in 1328.
3
Self-check
Why did the war have
intermittent periods of
peace?
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
35
Another French uprising occurred in 1358 near Paris. This revolt was called
the Jacquerie uprising after a fictional peasant hero named Jacques Bonhomme,
and it had many causes. Like other revolts, it was a response to the heavy taxation of the peasantry as the Estates General tried to recoup the mounting costs of
the Hundred Years’ War. The uprising was also partly due to the 1356 capture of
France’s King John II, who the English returned to France only after receiving a
significant ransom. The peasants resented having to pay for his release. Peasants
were also upset because much of their land had been destroyed by the war, and
they received little or no compensation for the loss of their livelihood. Lastly, the
peasants felt as if the aristocracy deliberately kept their wages low. The following
passage from a tale told to the French aristocracy seems to confirm those suspicions:
“Tell me, Lord, if you please, by what right or title does a villein [peasant] eat beef?
Should they eat fish? Rather let them eat thistles and briars, thorns and straw and
hay on Sunday and peapods on weekdays. They should keep watch without sleep
and have trouble always; that is how villeins should live. Yet each day they are
full and drunk on the best wines, and in fine clothes. The great expenditures of
villeins come as a high cost, for it is this that destroys and ruins the world. It is they
who spoil the common welfare. From the villeins comes all unhappiness. Should
they eat meat? Rather they chew grass on the heath with the horned cattle and go
naked on all fours.”
The aristocracy repressed the Jacquerie revolt weeks later, but more uprisings
occurred throughout France during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.
The French peasantry was not alone in its discontent. Peasant uprisings also
sprang up throughout England, particularly during the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381.
The revolt was a protest against the repressive feudal system, which was particularly
strong in England, and a new tax on all adult males. Priest John Ball led the revolt
along with Wat Tyler. John Ball inspired the peasants: “Good people, things cannot
go right in England and never will, until goods are held in common and there are
no more villeins and gentlefolk, but we are all one and the same. In what way are
those whom we call lords greater masters than ourselves?” Ball and Tyler rallied
30,000 men to call on King Richard II and demand changes. The king initially
decided to meet with the group, but when he changed his mind, the peasants
unleashed their destruction upon London. Many members of the aristocracy and
clergy were murdered, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had levied
the taxes. Richard finally crushed the large-scale revolt. Other uprisings occurred
throughout Europe, including in Italy, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire.
4
Self-check
What role did Joan of
Arc play in the Hundred
Years’ War?
Power Struggles in the Holy Roman Empire
While France and England were immersed in the on-again, off-again fighting of the
Hundred Years’ War, the Holy Roman Empire was involved in its own struggle to
retain power and control its domains. The Holy Roman Empire consisted of largely
independent states and cities that retained a high degree of political and economic
autonomy. They were also frequently at war with each other. The empire included
present-day Switzerland, eastern France, Germany, Austria, parts of western Poland,
Luxembourg, northern Italy, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, and the Netherlands.
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
36
Unlike other monarchies in Europe, the Holy Roman Emperor was an elected leader
rather than one who inherited the throne.
The Holy Roman Empire had been ruled by the Hohenstaufen dynasty since
the reign of Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152–1190). Frederick wanted to reassert the
power of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been involved in a struggle with the
Roman Catholic Church throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries. However,
conflict between the church and the emperor only intensified and German politics disintegrated into a period of deadly feuds during the thirteenth century. The
papacy succeeded in weakening the power of the emperor and worked to maintain
that weakness by supporting the practice of electing the emperor. The states and
cities of the empire also worked to keep this practice to ensure the weak authority
of the emperor. As a result, the Germanic states failed to develop a strong, central
monarchy like the other nations of western Europe during this time.
Initially, the electors of the Holy Roman Emperor actually elected the king of
Germany. This king only became the Holy Roman Emperor if approved by the
pope. Emperor Louis IV (r. 1314–1347) and some of the German princes set out to
remove the papacy’s influence on imperial matters. Louis IV issued the Declaration
of Rense in 1338, which proclaimed that papal approval was no longer necessary
for the imperial position. The declaration angered Pope Clement VI (r. 1342–1352),
who deposed Louis in 1346 and appointed Charles IV (r. 1346–1378) as emperor.
The appointment wasn’t accepted until Louis IV died in 1347. Charles IV worked
to provide a framework for the emperor’s election and did so by issuing the Golden
Bull in 1356. The proclamation officially laid out the seven electors of the Holy
Roman Emperor: three ecclesiastical princes and four lay princes. The pope lost
all say in the election of the emperor.
Even without papal oversight, however, the emperor remained in a weak
position with little control over his domains. Anarchy enveloped the Holy Roman
Empire as princes and other nobility looked to strengthen their power. Italian citystates enjoyed relative autonomy. Some of these states would later successfully
assert their independence. Amidst this political instability, the empire also faced
the constant threat of attack from the Ottoman Empire to the east.
Extension
•
Read “The Hundred Years’ War” chapter of The Chronicles by Jean Froissart.
What can one learn from Froissart’s account that may not appear in
textbooks?
5
Self-check
Identify one reason for
the Jacquerie revolts
in France.
ecclesiastical of or
related to a church,
especially as an established institution
6
Self-check
List two areas that
were part of the Holy
Roman Empire.
Summary
The Hundred Years’ War ripped England and France apart from 1337 to 1454. It
began with a spat over the French throne and a contested piece of land in southwest
France. Edward III of England claimed the throne as his own when Charles IV of
France died without an heir. French nobles had another idea and installed Charles
IV’s cousin, Philip of Valois, on the throne. England declared war on France. What
should have been an easy victory for France instead turned into over 100 years of
bloodshed, stalemates, and truces. England dominated most of the war, forcing
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Unit 1, Lesson 6
37
France into the Peace of Bretigny in 1360 and the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. However,
the tides turned in the late 1420s due, in part, to the efforts of Joan of Arc. The
French proved victorious and drove the English out of all their French holdings
except Calais in northern France. The war had several results, from the unrest of
the peasantry—which had revolted numerous times over excessive taxation during
the course of the war—to the rise of parliamentary power. The Holy Roman Empire
also struggled during this time, mostly owing to the election process that ensured
a weak emperor, much to the liking of the pope and German princes.
Looking Ahead
The Renaissance saw unprecedented brilliance in intellectual and artistic pursuits.
The educated elite living during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries distinguished
themselves from the “dark ages” that preceded them. The rebirth of classical Greek
and Roman thought began in Florence, Italy, and rapidly spread to the other Italian
city-states and northern Europe. While some of the accomplishments and ideas
of the Renaissance can be traced to medieval times, there is a sharp distinction
between popular ideologies and practices between the two eras.
Self-Check Answers
favor, and helped secure Charles VII’s place on the
1. Disputes between England and France over
control of the French throne and the Acquitaine.
French throne.
2. The English could reload the longbow more
quickly than the French could reload the crossbow.
The English could fire three arrows to one arrow
launched by the French.
5. The peasant-led Jacquerie revolt happened
because of high taxes, resentment for bailing out
the French King when the English held him captive,
and the lack of compensation for the land destroyed
during the Hundred Years’ War.
3. The Black Death slowed war efforts as did
peasant revolts in both England and France.
4. Joan of Arc boosted the morale of French troops,
helped troops turn the tide of the war in France’s
6. Answers will vary but may include: Switzerland,
eastern France, Germany, and Austria, part of
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands,
and northern Italy.
Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.
Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.