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Chapter 25: Africa and the
Atlantic World
African Politics and Society in Early Modern Times
 For 3 millenia, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated throughout sub-Sah Afr
 Villages an clans ruled by kinship rather than formal states
 Devised political structures and built a series of kingdoms and chiefdoms
 Muslims merchants brought trade and encouraged the formation of large kingdoms and
empires in west Afr and thriving city states in E Afr
 Contniued to form states in early modern era
 Under the influence of maritime trade, the patterns of state dev changed
 Regional kingdoms replaced the imperial states of w Afr
 People organized to take advantage of Atl and trans-Sah trade
 City-states of e Africa fell under the domination of Portugal seeking commercial opportunities
in the Indian Ocean
 Led to the formation of regional kingdoms in central Afr and south Afr
 Islam and Christianity grew as trade became more prominent
The States of West Africa and East Africa
 8th-16th, kingdoms on Savannas
 Earliest was Ghana
 Controlled and taxed the trans-Sah trade
 13th, the Mali Empire replaced Ghana, continuing their policies
 The Songhay Empire
 By the 15th century the Mali had begun to weaken
 The Songhay emerged as the dominant power
 Based on Gao
 Early 15th, rejected Mali power and mounted raids into their territory
 Ruler Sunni Ali (1464-93) conquered his neighbors
 Brought Timbuktu and Jenne under control of the Songhay Empire (1464-1591)
 Songhay Administration
 Sunni Ali built a large admin and military apparatus to oversee affairs
 Appointed governors to oversee provinces and instituted a hierarchy of command
 Created a navy to patrol the Niger
 Military might enabled Sunni Ali’s successors to extend their authority
 Gao had 75k ppl, many o whome participated in trans-Saharan trade
 Emperors were all Muslims
 Supported mosques
 Schools to teach the Quran
 Maintained Islamic university at Timbuktu
 Islam as foundation of cooperation with Muslim merchants and Islamic states in North
Africa
 Didn’t abandon traditional religious practices
 Fall of Songhay
 Dominated West Africa or most of the 16th century
 Last of the grassland empires
 1591, a Moroccan musket-bearing army attacked and withered the Songhay
 Subjects revolted
 A series of small regional kingdoms took over
 Kanem-Bornu around Lake Chad
 Hausa establish city-states to the west
 Oyo and Asante people south of the grasslands
 Diula, Mande established states on the coast
 Engaged in commercial relations with European merchants
 Increasing Atlantic trade diminished the power of Mali and Songhay, which had relied on
trans-Saharan trade to finance their empires
 Swahili Decline
 The Swahili city-states fell on hard times
 Vasco da Gama skirmished with local forces
 Forced the ruler of Kilwa to pay tribute
 1505, a Portuguese naval expedition subdued all of the Swahili cities from Soala to
Mombasa
 Port built admin centers at Mozambique and Malindi
 Constructed fortes throughout the region to control trade
 Did not succeed, but disrupted trade enough to decline the Swahili cities
The Kingdoms of Central African and South Africa
 The Kingdom of Kongo
 As trade networks increased, an increasing volume of commerce encouraged state building
in central and south Africa
 In central, principal Afican states were Kongo, Ndongo, Luba, Lunda in the Congo r.
 Best known was the kingdom of Kongo
 Emerged in 14th century
 Built a centralized state with officials overseeing affairs
 Embraced much of the modern-day Republic of Congo and Angola
 In 1483 a small Portuguese leet recon’d the Congo and initiated relations with the Kongo
 Had established political and diplomatic relations with the kingd of Kongo
 Supplied them with advisors, provided a military garrison, brought artisans
 The kings of Kongo converted to Christianity to establish better commercial relations
 Appreciated that Christianity consolidated their hold on power
 The sints of the RC church were similar to thouse of the Kongo
 King Nzinga Mbemba, King Afonso I, became a devout RC
 Tried to convert all of his subjects
 Slave Raiding in Kongo
 Relations with Portugal brought wealth and financial recognition to Kongo
 Eventually led to the destruction of the kingdom and the establishment of a Portuguese
colony in Angola
 In exchange for textiles, weapons, advisors, and artisans that they brought to Kongo
 Sought high-value merch such as copper, ivory, and slaves
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Made alliances with authorities in interior regions and provided them with weapons for
slaves
 These tactics undermined the kings, who appealed unsuccessfully to Portgual to cease
or limit their trade in slaves
 Kongo remained strong until the mid-17th century
 Portugal aided Kongo in defeating invaders, but still continued to trade in slaves
 Over time relations between the two deteriorated, esp when Portgual started to trade in
areas south of Kongo
 1665, went to war, Portgual easily winning
 Began to withdraw from Kongo in search of more profitable business
 By 18th century, Kongo had largely disintegrated
Kingom of Ndongo
 Port developed a slave trade with the kingdom of Ndongo, referred to as Angola by the Port
 During 16th, had rown from small chiefdom subject to the Kongo to a powerful regional
kingdom
 Due to wealth, able to attract by trading directly w/Port merchants rather than through
Kongo intermediaries
 Port merchants founded a small colony by 1575
 After 1611, increased influence by allying with neigbors who delivered more slaves
 Campaigned in Ndongo to establish a colony for large-scale trade of slaves
Queen Nzinga
 For forty years Queen Nzinga led spirited resistance against Port
 Mobilized central Afr against the Port
 Allied with Dutch mariners
 Wanted to remove the Port, then expel the Dutch, and create a central Afr empire
Portuguese Colony of Angola
 Unable to oust Port
 Stymied their efforts to increase wealth
 With their weapons and wealth, Port able to exploit political divisions of cent Afr
 When Queen Nzinga died, Port forces faced less resistance, extending their control over
Angola, the first Euro colony in SSA
Regional Kingdoms in South Africa
 Little light on political structures of South Africa
 Regional kingdoms
 Emerged as early as 11th century, largely due to trade
 Merchants from Swahili coast sought gold, ivory, slaves from interior
 By controlling local commerce, chieftains increased their wealth and power
 By 1300 massive stone fortified city known as Great Zimbabwe
 Dominated gold-bearing plain between Zambesi and Limpopo rivers
European Arrival in South Africa
 After 15th century, smaller kingdoms displaced the rulers of Great Zimbabwer, and Port and
Dutch mariners started to play a role in S Afr affairs
 In search of commercial opportunities, Euros struck alliances with local peoples and
intervened in disputes
 Aimed at supporting their allies and advancing their own interests
 They became active after Dutch mariners built a trading post at Cape Town in 1652
 Encountered the hunting and gathering Khoikhoi people, Hottentots
 With use of firearms, took over Khoikhoi with ease
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By 1700 large number of Dutch colonists began to arrive in South Africa
By mid-century had established settlements throughout the area
Laid the foundation for a series of Dutch and British colonies
Eventually became the most prosperous region in SSA
Islam and Christianity in Early Modern Africa
 Indigenous religions remained influential throughout SSA in early modern times
 Many African people recognized a supreme, remote creator god, they devoted most of their
attention to powerful spirits who were thought to intervene directly in human affairs
 African ppl associated many of these spirits with geographic features
 Others thought of them as the living dead, spirits of ancestors who roamed the world
 Dealt out rewards and punishment
 Islam in SSA
 Both Islam and Christianity attracted interest in SSA
 Islam was most popular in commercial centers of west Africa and Swahili city-states
 Timbuktu had a prominent Islam university
 Most African Muslims blended Islam w/indigenous beliefs
 Result was a syncretic brand of Islam that permitted men and women with each other on
more familiar terms
 Made a place for African beliefs in spirits and magic
 Although it appealed to Africans, the syncretic blend was offense and impure to many
Muslims
 The Fulani and Islam
 Some Muslims in SSA shared these concerns about the purity of Islam
 Most important was the Fulani
 Originally a pastoral ppl who herded in west Afr for centuries
 By the late 17th century, many Fulani had settled in cities
 Observed a strict form of Islam like that in NN Afr and Arabia
 Beginning about 1680 and through the 19th, the Fulani led military campaigns to establish
Islam and create their own brand of Islam in E Afr
 Did not stamp out African religions, nor did they eliminated indigenous elements
 Founded powerful states in Guinea, Senegal, Mali, and north Nigeria
 Promoted the spread of Islam beyond the cities to the countryside
 Established schools in remote towns and villages to teach the Quran and Islamic
doctrine
 Their campaigns strengthened Islam in SSA
 Laid a foundation for new rounds of Islamic state building and conversion efforts in the
19th and 20th centuries
 Christianity and SSA
 Christianity made compromises with traditional beliefs and customs when it spread in SSA
 The Portuguese community in Kongo and Angola supported priests and missionaries
who introduce RC to central Africa
 Found strong interest among rulers such as King Afonso I of Kongo and his descendants
 Eagerly adopted European-style Christianity as a foundation for commercial and
political alliances with Portgual
 Beyond the ruling courts, Christian teachings blended w/African traditions to form
syncretic cults
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Some Africans regarded Christian missionaries as magicians and worse crosses and
other Christian symbols as amulets
 The Antonian Movement
 An influential syncretic cult was the Antonian movement in Kongo
 Flourished in the early 18th century when the Kongo faced challenges
 Began in 1704 when an aristocratic woman named Dona Beatriz proclaimed St.
Anthony had possessed her and chosen her to communicate his messages
 Extremely popular among Portuguese Christians who introduced the cult to the
Kongo
 Dona could cure miracles and diseases, used her prominent to promote an African
form of Christianity
 Taught Jesus was a black African man, Kongo was the true holy land, and heaven
was for Africans
 Urged Kongolese to ignore Euro missionaries and heed her instead
 Tried to end wars in Kongo
 A serious challenge to missionary efforts in Kongo
 In 1706, persuaded King Pedro IV o Kongo to arrest her on heresy
 Was a false prophet, sentenced to death
 Antonian movement did not disappear
 Continued to strengthen the monarchy and reconstruct the Kongolese society
 In 1708 an army of 20k ANtonians challenged King Pedro, whom they considered
unworthy
Social Change in Early Modern Africa
 Intro
 Despite increased state-building activity and political turmoil, Afr society followed longestablished patterns
 Kinship groups were still the most important social unit and sometimes political
organization
 Within farming villages, clans under the leadership of prominent individuals organized the
affairs of their kinship groups, disciplining those who violated community standards
 In regions where kingdoms and empires had not emerged, clan leaders consulted with
one another and governed large regions
 In lands ruled by formal states, clan leaders implemented state policy at the village level
 Interaction with Euro brought change to African society in early modern times
 Brought access to European textiles and metal goods
 Africans had produced textiles and high-quality steel for centuries before the arrival of
Portuguese mariners
 European products of different materials and styles became popular as complements to
native Afr wares
 American Foods Crops in SSA
 Trade brought new food crops to SSA
 In the mid-16th century, American crops such as manioc, maize, and peanuts arrived in
Africa aboard Portuguese ships
 Supplemented bananas, yams, rice, and millet, the principal staple foods of SSA
 The most important American crop was Manioc because of its high yield and it thrived in
tropical soils not well suited to cultivation of other crops
 Population Growth
 By the 18th century, bread made from manioc became a staple food in many areas of west
and central Africa
 In 1500 ce, the pop of SSA was 34 mil
 B 1600 it had increased by 1/3 to 44 mil, 52 in 1700 and 60 in 1800
 This strong demographic expansion is all the more remarkable because it took place when
millions of African underwent involuntary, force migration to the Caribbean and the Americas
 Despite the migrations, American food crops supported expanding populations in all
regions of SSA during early modern times
The Atlantic Slave Trade
 Intro
 Most momentous connection of Afr to the rest of the world was the Atlantic slave trade
 From the 15th-19th century, Euros looked to Afr as a source of labor for sprawling
plantations that they established in the western hem
 In exchange for slaves, Afr received manufactured products, most noteably firearms
 Only in the early 19th century did the Atl slave trade come to an end
 Most states abolished slavery during the course of the 19th century
Foundations of the Slave Trade
 Slavery in Africa
 The institution of slavery appeared in antiquity, until the 19th cent many farming peoples
made place for slaves
 Common throughout Africa after the Bantu migrations spread farming
 Most slaves in Afr came the ranks of war captives, although criminals and individuals
expelled from their clans also did too
 Usually worked as main far from home, although some were admin, soldiers, or advisors
 Songhay used slaves as administrators since they mistrusted free nobles (ambitious
and undependable)
 Agriccultural plantations in the Songhay had hundreds of slave laborers, many of them
working under the management of slave admin
 Law and society made Afr slavery different from bondage in other areas
 Did not recognize private property, but rather vested ownership of land in communities
 Wealth and power in Afr came not from the possession of land but from control over the
human labor
 Slaves were a form of private investment, heritable property, and a means of
measuring wealth
 Those who controlled large numbers of individuals were able to harvest more crops and
accumulate more wealth than others
 Routinely purchased slaves into their kinship groups
 Within a generation a slave might obtain freedom and an honorable position in a
new family or clan
 The Islamic Slave Trade
 After the 8th century, Muslims merchants sought Afr slaves for sale and distribution
 Found ready markets for slaves
 When traditional sources were insiufficient, they created new supplies by raiding villages,
capturing innocent individuals,and forcing them into servitude
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States sometimes allied with the merchants by providing cavalry forces to mount
lightning raids on undefended communities
 Merchants then transported the slaves across the Sahara by camel for distribution in the
Med basin or on ships at Swahili port cities
 During a millennium or more of the Islamic Slave Trade, ten million Africans may have left
their homeland in servitude
 By the time Euros ventured to SSA in the 15th and 16th centuries, traffic in slaves was a
feature of African society, and a system for capturing, selling, and distributing slaves had
functioned for 500 years
 When Euros began to pursue commercial interests in Afr and the Americas, the slave trade
expanded dramatically
 After 1450, European peoples tapped existing networks and expanded commerce into
the Atlantic Ocean
 Brought about numerous amounts of involuntary migration
Human Cargoes
 The Atlantic slave trade began small but grew to an enormous proportion
 The earliest were Portuguese on the west Afr coast
 1441, took 12 Afr men
 Encountered stiff resistance when they attempted to capture slaves
 Thousands of poison-tipped arrows
 Quickly learned they could purchase slaves rather than capturing them
 By 1460 they were delivering 500 slaves per year to Port and Spain
 Worked as miners, porters, or domestic servants
 The Early Slave Trade
 Delivered slaves to the islands in the Atl owned by Portugal
 No indigenous pop and the port pop was too small
 Sugar planters on the island of Sao Tome called for slaves in increasing quantities
 Relied on slave labor, and production soared along with the demand for sugar in Europe
 2000 per year went to Sao Tome by 1520s
 Extended to South America
 Imported slaves to Brazil
 Meanwhile, Spanish explorers sought laborers
 Disease ravaged the indigenous pop
 Natives frequently revolted against their overlords or escaped to the hinterlands
 Began to rely on imported Afr slaves as laborers
 In 1518 the first shipment went
 Introduced slaves to Mexican mines in 1520s
 By early-17th, English colonists had introduced slaves to North America
 Triangular Trade
 Demand for labor in western hem stimulated a profitable commerce known as the triangular
trade
 First leg, carried horses and and manufactured goods to SSA for slaves
 Second leg took slaves to Caribbean and America
 Exchanged slaves for cash, or sometimes sugar or molasses
 Filled their vessels with American products before embarking on their voyage back to
Europe
 Brutal and inhumane
 Original capture of slaves in Afr was almost always violent
 Some Afr chieftains organized raiding parties
 Wars for the purpose of capturing victims
 Snatched individuals out of their homes
 The Middle Passage
 Forced march to coast and into holding pens
 The Middle Passage, traveling below decks in cramped quarters
 Some forced to lie in chains on shelves
 Many slaves attempted to starve themselves or mounted revolts
 Crews treated them with cruelty and contempt
 4-6 weeks trip
 Could see 50% mortality rate
 Built larger ships, carried more water, provided better nourishment and facilities for
their cargo; got it down to about 5%
 Total was 25%
The Impact of Slave Trade in Africa
 Volume of the Slave Trade
 Before 1600 small sacale trade
 2k annually
 17th, 20k pear year
 Euros settled into the western hemisphere
 18th, 55k per year
 During the 1780s, slave arrival was 88k per year
 Some years were 12 million
 Some 4 million died resisted seizure
 The impact of the slave trade varied over time and from society
 The kingdoms of Rwanda and Bugunda on the great lakes and the herding of Masai and
Turkana largely esaped the slave trade
 Resisted but were also distant from slave ports
 Others benefited from slave trade
 Those who raided profited as did port cities and states that coordinated trade
 Asante, Dahomey, Oyo purchased firearms and built powerful states in west Africa
 In 19th century, after the abolition of slavery, some African merchants complained about
losing their livelihood and tried to end British patrols of the Atl
 Social Effects of the Slave Trade
 Suffered serious losses in SSA
 Deprived societies of 16 million individuals
 Total population rose due to new American crops, several individual societies
experienced severe losses due to slave trade
 West Afr societies between Senegal and Angola were vulnerable
 Gender and Slavery
 Slave trade distorted sex ratios in borth the Americas and Africa
 2/3 of all slaves were young men
 Reflected European preferences
 Could provide heavy labor
 Also showed desire to keep female slaves for use in households
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Resulting gender imbalance militated against slaves reproducing in most placed of
colonial America
 Made it imperative to continuously look for new slaves
 Esp in Caribbean where death rates were high
 Preference for males had implications in SSA
 By late 18th century, 2/3 of pop was female in Angola
 Polygyny
 Took on duties of men
 Political Effects of the Slave Trade
 Slave trade brought turmoil to Afr societies
 Fought many wars in general, but added new desires to engage in conflict
 Violence escalated in the late 17th century when Afr ppl increasingly exchanged slaves
for firearms
 Dahomey used weapons to expand rapidly and absorbed neighboring societies by
increasing its firearms
 Became a slave-raiding force, even with women soldiers
The African Diaspora
 Intro
 Some slaves worked as urban laborers or domestic servants, or miners in Mexico or Peru
 Vast majority of the were agricultural workers
 Cultivated cash crops that made their way that would go throughout the Atlantic Ocean
basin
 Often resisted their bondage
 Built hybrid cultural traditions
 Most societies ended slavery and slave trade during the 19th century
 By that time the African diaspora- left a permanent mark throughout the western
hemisphere
Plantation Societies
 Intro
 Most Afr slaves went to plantations in trop/subtrop western hem
 Europeans created plantations to satisfy increasing Euro demand for sugar and other
commodities
 1st plantation in 1516 on Hispaniola
 Extended into Mexico
 By early 17th, Portugal, English, Dutch, and French plantations had appeared in the
Caribbean and Americas
 Cash Crops
 Most produced sugar
 Tobacco rivaled sugar in 17th century as a profitable product
 Indigo as well
 By 18th, cotton was main concentration, and coffee emerged
 Caribbean and American plantations all had certain elements in common
 Often maintained gardens that produced food for the local community
 Goal was to profit from production and export of commercial crops
 To stay profitable, relied almost exclusively on slave labor
 Featured a sharp division of labor based on race
 Euro/Euro-Americans governed plantation affairs
 Large number of Africans/Afro-Americans performed most of the physical labor
 Regional Differences
 Plantation societies differed considerably from one region to another
 In the Caribbean and South America, slave pops were unable to sustain their numbers
by natural means
 Many fell victim to tropical diseases
 Faced brutal conditions
 Low rates of reproduction since mostly males were imported
 Required continuous importation of slaves from Africa
 Half went to Africa, 1/3 went to Brazil
 5% went to north America
 Disease in North Am were less threatening than in the Caribbean and Brazil
 Conditions of slaves’ lives were less harsh
 Imported more female slaves to form families
 Especially strong support for families in 18th century when slave prices went up
 Resistance to Slavery
 Slaves resisted in many areas
 Some were simple
 Worked slower
 Sabotaged plantation equipment
 Running away was more serious
 Maroons gathered in mountainous, forested, or swampy regions and built their own
communities
 Often raided nearby plantations
 Many maroons had military experience in Africa
 Flourished throughout slave-holding regions
 Slave Revolts
 Most dramatic form of resistance to slavery was the slave revolt
 Far outnumbered others on plantations
 Brought fear to plantation owners, often resulting in death and destruction
 Slave revolts almost never brought slavery to and end
 Euro leaders had access to arms, horses, and military forces to extinguish most
rebellions
 Only on Saint-Domingue did a slave revolt abolish slavery as a result (1793)
 Declared independence from France, renamed the land Haiti, and established a
republic in 1804
 Terrified slave owners and inspired slaves throughout the hemisphere, but no others
matched its accomplishments
 Slavery and Economic Development
 Physical labor of slaves made crucial contributions to new societies in the Americas and
the early modern world as a whole
 Cultivated many of the crops and extracted many of the minerals that made their way
around the world
 Slaves did not enjoy any of their labors, which flowed mostly to Europeans
The Making of African-American Cultural Traditions
 Intro
 Enslaved Africans didn’t enjoy the luxury of maintain their inherited cultural traditions
 Preserved African traditions, but had to adapt to societies compounded of Euro and
American elements
 Constructed distinctive African-American cultural traditions
 African and Creole Languages
 Euro languages were the dominant tongues in the slave societies
 African languages influenced communication
 Sometimes, enough slaves from same region of Africa were together and could speak
among themselves
 Other times, spoke creole tongue that drew on several European and African languages
 Georgia and South Carolina slaves, about ¾ of the pop, spoke Gullah and Geechee
languages
 African-American Religions
 Like their languages, slaves’ religions combined elements from different societies
 Slaves religions combined elements from different societies
 Some shipped out of Africa were Christians
 Others converted to Christianity after their arrival in the west
 Most Africans practiced syncretic Christianity
 Used African interests and traditions
 Developed mostly in plantation with slavery
 Usually did not create an institutional structure or establish a hierarchy of priests or
church officials
 In several cases- Voudou in Haiti, Santeria in Cuba, and Candomble in Brazil- they
became popular among slaves
 All the syncretic religions drew inspiration from Christianity
 Met in parish churches, sought personal salvation, made use of European Christian
paraphernalia
 Holy water, candles, statues
 Preserved African traditions
 Associated African deities with Christian saints
 Relied heavily on Afr rituals (drumming, dancing, sacrificing animals)
 Core of these faiths was participation in rituals
 Preserved beliefs in spirits and supernatural powers
 Magic, sorcery, witchcraft, spirit possession
 African-American Music
 Slaves relied on their Afr traditions in creating musical forms for the plantation
 For many of these laborers, the playing of African music brought a sense of home and
community
 Represented what the slaves had lost- cultural grounding and belonging
 Afr slaves in the Americas adapted Afr musical traditions, both rhythmic and oratorical
 Managed to create musical forms that made their influence felt throughout societies in
the Caribbean and Americas
 New sense of identity by using west Afr instruments and musical instruments to Euro
languages, Christianity, and the work routines
 Drums and banjos similar to African instruments
 Call-and-response patterns
 Found its way into spirituals
 Some slaveowners sought to ban the music
 African-American Cultural Traditions
 Introduced Afr foods to Caribb and Ameri societies
 Hybrid cuisines
 Gumbo
 Rice cultivation
 West African style houses, fashioned clay pots, grass baskets
The End of the Slave Trade and the Abolition of Slavery
 Intro
 Almost as old as slave trade was abolition attempts
 Am and Fr revolutions stimulated abolition
 Oluaudah Equiano
 Africans took up the struggle to abolish slave trade
 Slave revolts made slavery expensive and dangerous
 Books were written by freed slaves exposing brutality of slavery
 Most notable was Olaudah Equiano (1745097)
 Published an autobiography detailing his experiences as a slave and free man
 Gave speeches and denounced slavery as an evil institution
 Lobbied gov’t officials and members of Parliament
 Strengthened the antislavery movement in England
 The Economic Costs of Slavery
 Economic forces helped end slavery and the trade
 Gradually became clear slavery was no longer cheap
 Possibility of rebellion forced slave societies to maintain expensive military forces
 Rapid expansion of sugar production in 18th century le to declining prices
 African slave traders and Euro merchants also increased their prices
 As profitability of slavery declined, Euros began to shift their investments from sugar and
slaves to new manufacturing industries
 Found that wage labor in factories was cheaper than slave labor
 Free workers spend much of their income on those very same manufactured goods
 Realized that leaving Africans in Africa where they could get the Euros raw materials was
good business
 African was no longer just a source of slave labor
 End of the Slave Trade
 1803, Denmark abolished the trade in slaves
 GB in 1807
 US in 1808
 France in 1814
 Netherlands in 1817
 Spain in 1845
 Did not abolish the institution itself
 As long as plantation slavery continued, trade shipped slaves across the Atlantic
 British naval squadrons patrolled the coasts of Africa, slowly grinding the trade to a halt
 Last ship arrived in 1867
 The Abolition of Slavery
 Abolition of slavery was drawn-out
 1833 in British colonies
 1848 in French
 1865 in US
 1886 in Cuba
 1888 in Brazil
 Saudi Arabia and Angola in 1960s
 Millions of people live in slavery even today
 Debt bondage, contract labor, sham adoptions, servile marriages, mostly in Afr, south
Asia, and Latin America
 Legacy of Atlantic slave trade remains visible throughout much of the western hem,
where the African diaspora gave rise to African-American communities