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Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
I. Anatomy – the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
A. Gross or macroscopic
B. Microscopic
C. Developmental
II. Physiology – the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery
III. Gross Anatomy—studies structures which can be seen with the naked eye
A. Regional – all structures in one part of the body (such as the abdomen or leg)
B. Systemic – gross anatomy of the body studied by system
C. Surface – study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin
IV. Microscopic Anatomy—studies structures too small to be seen with the naked eye
A. Cytology – study of the cell
B. Histology – study of tissues
V. Developmental Anatomy
A. Traces structural changes throughout life
B. Embryology – study of developmental changes of the body before birth
VI. Specialized Branches of Anatomy
A. Pathological anatomy – study of structural changes caused by disease
B. Radiographic anatomy – study of internal structures visualized by specialized scanning procedures
such as X-ray, MRI, and CT scans
C. Molecular biology – study of anatomical structures at a subcellular level
VII. Physiology
A. Considers the operation of specific organ systems
1. Renal – kidney function
2. Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system
3. Cardiovascular – operation of the heart and blood vessels
B. Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the cellular or molecular level
C. Understanding physiology also requires a knowledge of physics, which explains
1. electrical currents
2. blood pressure
3. the way muscle uses bone for movement
VIII. Principle of Complementarity
A. Function always reflects structure
B. What a structure can do depends on its specific form
IX. Levels of Structural Organization
A. Chemical –
1. atoms combined to form molecules
2. molecules form organelles
B. Cellular – smallest unit of life
C. Tissue – consists of similar types of cells (have a common function)
D. Organ – made up of different types of tissues
E. Organ system – consists of different organs that work closely together (accomplish specific purpose)
F. Organismal – made up of the organ systems (total of all structures working together to promote life)
X. Integumentary System
A. Forms the external body covering
B. Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
C. Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D
XI. Skeletal System
A. Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments
B. Protects and supports body organs
C. Provides the framework for muscles
XII.
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XXI.
D. Site of blood cell formation
E. Stores minerals
Muscular System
A. Composed of muscles and tendons
B. Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression
C. Maintains posture
D. Produces heat
Endocrine System: Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and
nutrient use (metabolism) by cells in body
Nervous System
A. Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
B. Is the fast-acting control system of the body
C. Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands
Cardiovascular System
A. Composed of the heart and blood vessels
B. The heart pumps blood
C. The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body
Lymphatic System
A. Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
B. Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood
C. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
D. Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
Respiratory System
A. Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs
B. Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide
Digestive System
A. Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and
liver
B. Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood
C. Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
Urinary System
A. Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
B. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
C. Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the blood
Reproductive System
A. Male Reproductive System
1. Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens
2. Main function is the production of offspring
3. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
4. Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract
B. Female Reproductive System
1. Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
2. Main function is the production of offspring
3. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
4. Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus
5. Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn
Organ Systems Interrelationships
A. The integumentary system protects the body from the external environment
B. Digestive and respiratory systems, in contact with the external environment, take in nutrients and
oxygen
C. Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood
D. Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems
XXII. Necessary Life Functions
A. Maintaining boundaries – the internal environment remains distinct from the external environment
1. Cellular level – accomplished by plasma membranes
2. Organismal level – accomplished by the skin
B. Movement – locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis), and contractility
C. Responsiveness – ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them
D. Digestion – breakdown of ingested foodstuffs into molecules usable by body
E. Metabolism – all the chemical reactions that occur in the body
F. Excretion – removal of wastes from the body
G. Reproduction – cellular and organismal levels
1. Cellular – an original cell divides and produces two identical daughter cells
2. Organismal – sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person
H. Growth – increase in size of a body part or of the organism
XXIII. Survival Needs
A. Nutrients – needed for energy and cell building
B. Oxygen – necessary for metabolic reactions that release energy from foods
C. Water – most abundant chemical in body; provides the necessary environment for chemical reactions
D. Normal body temperature – necessary for chemical reactions to occur at life-sustaining rates
E. Atmospheric pressure – required for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
F. Homeostasis – ability to maintain a relatively stable internal environment regardless of
environmental changes
1. The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
2. Chemical, thermal, and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis
3. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
a) Variables produce a change in the body
b) The three interdependent components of control mechanisms:
(1) Receptor – monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)
(2) Control center – determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
(3) Effector – provides the means to respond to stimuli
4. Feedback systems
a) Negative Feedback: output shuts off the original stimulus Example: Regulation of
room temperature
b) Positive Feedback: output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus Example:
Regulation of blood clotting
c) Homeostatic Imbalance
(1) Disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal equilibrium
(2) Overwhelming the usual negative feedback mechanisms allows destructive
positive feedback mechanisms to take over
XXIV. Anatomical Position:
A. Body erect
B. feet slightly apart
C. palms facing forward
D. thumbs point away from body
XXV. Directional Terms
A. Superior and inferior – toward and away from the head, respectively
B. Anterior and posterior – toward the front and back of the body
C. Medial, lateral, and intermediate – toward the midline, away from the midline, and between a more
medial and lateral structure
D. Proximal and distal – closer to and farther from the origin of the body part
E. Superficial and deep – toward and away from the body surface
XXVI. Body Planes
A. Sagittal – divides the body into right and left parts
Midsagittal or medial – sagittal plane that lies on the midline
Frontal or coronal – divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse or horizontal (cross section) – divides the body into superior and inferior parts
Oblique section – cuts made diagonally
Anatomical Variability
Humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy
Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions, but:
1. Nerves or blood vessels may be somewhat out of place
2. Small muscles may be missing
XXVIII.
Body Cavities
A. Dorsal cavity protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions
1. Cranial cavity – within the skull; encases the brain
2. Vertebral cavity – runs within the vertebral column; encases the spinal cord
B. Ventral cavity houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions
1. Thoracic
2. Abdominopelvic
XXIX. Thoracic cavity is subdivided into two pleural cavities, the mediastinum, and the pericardial cavity
A. Pleural cavities – each houses a lung
B. Mediastinum – contains the pericardial cavity; surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
C. Pericardial cavity – encloses the heart
XXX. The abdominopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity by the dome-shaped
diaphragm
A. It is composed of two subdivisions
1. Abdominal cavity – contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
2. Pelvic cavity – lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and
rectum
XXXI. Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
A. Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls
B. Visceral serosa covers the internal organs
C. Serous fluid separates the serosae; allows organs to slide without friction
XXXII.
Other Body Cavities
A. Oral and digestive – continuous; mouth and cavities of the digestive organs to anus
B. Nasal –located within and posterior to the nose
C. Orbital – house the eyes
D. Middle ear – contains bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
E. Synovial – joint cavities
XXXIII.
Abdominopelvic Regions (9)—see p18
XXXIV.
Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions—see p18
XXXV.
Abdominopelvic Quadrants (often used by medical personnel)
A. Right upper
B. Left upper
C. Right lower
D. Left lower
B.
C.
D.
E.
XXVII.
A.
B.