Download The Legacies of Imperial China

The Legacies of Imperial
China
Ch. 1 of Kenneth Liberthal
(with some additional points from
Ch. 1 of Fairbank and Goldman)
Contents
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Introduction
The Imperial Chinese System
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Ideology, the emperor, bureaucy
the society, the economy.
Limit of imperial system
The Imperial Collapse
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Decline of the Qing(淸) Dynasty
Western Challenges
Response and Collapse
Introduction: Imperial Tradition &
Its Legacy
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The author picked up the “imperial system”
as the key word characterizing the Chinese
history.
Imperial regime kept for more than two
thousand years with strong implications for
modern China.
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From Qin(秦, 221-210 B.C.) dynasty until Qing(淸,
1644-1911) dynasty.
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The first emperor (Qin Shi Huang, 秦始皇) ),
The last emperor (Pu Yi).
Introduction: Imperial Tradition & Its
Legacy (Cont’d)
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Key characteristics of imperial regime have
persisted throughout Chinese history.
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State based on ideological commitment, strong personal
leadership at top, nationwide governing bureaucracy,
state set moral framework for entire society, etc.
Even under PRC which seemed to have transformed
China thoroughly, legacy of imperial regime persisted.
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Mao Period (1949-1978), Deng Period (1978-1997).
Even the contradiction & weakness of the imperial system.
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Tensions bet. the ruler (eg. Mao) & bureaucracy, weak
revenue base of central government, divided loyaltiy of the
local leaders between the state and the local people, etc.
Introduction (cont’d)
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Imperial China had monarchical governance system
and patriarchal social system.
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Both similar and different (size, length of period, state
ideology, etc) with pre-modern Western monarchies.
Question: Were the traditions key barriers to forming
a strong, wealthy nation?
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Both pros and cons exist (debate still going on) in China.
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Low status of commerce hindered (capitalist) development?
Imperial state ideology hindered (social, political) progress?
Perceived superiority of Chinese (漢, Han) civilization weakened
ethnic-based nationalism (a basis of nation-state.)?
The empire was called “all under heaven (天下)” <cf: nation-state
Foreign rule (eg. Mongol, Manchu) gained legitimacy by
conforming to the key norms of Chinese civilization.
Tension on the notions of ethnic Chinese (漢, Han), cultural
Chinese (華人), Chinese citizen (中國人).
1. The Imperial Chinese System
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Began with Qin(秦) dynasty in BC 221, lasting
until the early 1900s.
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Fundamental features of the Chinese imperial
system persisted, though some changes occurred
over time.
Lasted long based on self-confident sense of
greatness.
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As revealed in Emperor’s letter to King of England.
Perception of China as the center of the world (中華 思想).
Five key elements of the system (by K.
Lieberthal)
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Ideology, the emperor, bureaucratic structure;
the society, the economy.
(1) Confucianism (儒家) as (state)
Ideology
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Originated from Confucius (孔子) & his disciples.
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Not just a philosophy but a political ideology.
Three core features, as a political ideology.
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Conservative ideology for preserving order.
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Hierarchy is valued in political & social spheres.
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Ideal society was the mythical state in the past (not future).
Experience & age become criterion of worth.
Small ruling (elite) group mastered Confucian classics (literacy,
at first) & ordinary people just do manual work.
The lesser party obedient to the superior party. (eg.)
“Correct” conduct demanded by each type of relationship.
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‘Correct conduct’ (practice) shape ‘correct thinking’ (doctrine)
over time (essential for social harmony). <cf: actual thinking.
Emphasize correct practice, rituals, and protocols of speech.
Confucianism as Ideology (cont’d)
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The emperor (皇帝) is supposed to secure prosperity thru
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Fidelity to Confucian doctrine regarded as criterion of
civilized society.
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Right conduct to people (rule by virtue 德治) & correct
performance of rituals to heaven.
Emperor only constrained by Confucian doctrine.
Ritualized system of exchange of goods and pledges of
loyalty (a kind of ‘diplomatic and trade relations’) with less
civilized foreign countries (mostly, neighboring countries).
Other Ideologies influenced China’s traditional polity.
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Actual political practice often based on “Legalism (法家),”
widely using physical punishments and material rewards.
Ordinary people: Buddhism (from India), Daoism(道家).
(2) The Emperor (皇帝) as the “son
of heaven” (天子)
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Emperor is responsible for maintaining civilized
society, and for mediating with “heaven”.
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“heaven”- combination of history and fate (different
from Western concept of God).
Personal rule, unbound by formal law.
Confucian thought on Emperor: provide moral guidance
for society & accountable for his actions, based on the
Confucian ideology.
 The ideology was interpreted by scholar officials.potential tension.
Tension between the bureaucrat (the outer court)
& personal life of emperor (the inner court).
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Relative power fluctuate over the life-cycle of a dynasty.
The Emperor (cont’d)
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Particular scholar officials, namely “censors”,
supposed to criticize the emperor (& his officials)
for poor performances.
Large scale social unrest arose occasionally.
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Due to corruption, excessive taxation, etc.
Usually uprising arise in periphery, then spreading to
central areas.
Sometimes successfully overthrow the emperor.
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The emperor lost the “mandate of heaven (天命)”.
New dynasty begin legitimately, while failed uprising led
to loss of everything of uprisers (& their families).
(3) The Bureaucracy
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Precursor of the modern bureaucracy
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Well-defined offices, merit-based appointment, formal
communication, specialized function, governing huge territory.
Strong, ideologically motivated (according to the Confucian
doctrine) bureaucracy is the basis of the whole system.
Chinese centralized bureaucratic rule: one of the most
extraordinary accomplishments of imperial China.
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In its scope, capabilities, and “modernity.”
Mastery of Confucian classics was the key.
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Admission to and advancement in the bureaucrats thru series
of examinations.
Not practical knowledge but a conservative ideology (&
general knowledge) that bound the officials to the state.
Common culture of small group of elite officials combined
with oral language of Mandarin Chinese- conservative.
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Different language from the dialects that common people use.
(4) Chinese Society
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Hierarchical, family-focused, ritualistic one.
National bureaucracy had minimal presence in
local governance.
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Most people were peasants living off the land,
within the boundary of village.
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Life confined in their village and market town (集鎭).
Land ownership- major base of social
stratification.
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Small number of formal bureaucrats (only about 20,000).
Local gentry (鄕紳) played key role.
Land was a commodity, with substantial mobility.
Women were severely repressed.
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‘footbinding’ a symbol of the status of woman.
Chinese Society (cont’d)
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Social obligations (norms) according to
Confucian value system.
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Obligations (‘correct’ behavior) are confined mostly
only to “specific group of related people”, such as clan.
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Eg. Sharp contrast in behavior toward distant relative &
starving beggar.
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<cf: Western concept of general social obligation, based on
Christian heritage.
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Lack the notion of “citizenship” or individual personal
rights.
Led to the importance of personal “connection” (guanxi ,
關係) in contemporary Chinese society.
(5) The Economy
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Basically an agrarian economy, dominated by
small peasants.
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Agricultural output increased to support growing
population, w/o major technological progress.
High yields by labor-intensive farming, more inputs
(eg. fertilizer), and new crops (rice, commercial
crops).
Vicious interdependence between dense
population and highly intensive utilization of land.
Household-based small farms dominant in North
China, while landlord-tenant system common in
South China.
 Partially due to equal distribution of land among sons.
The Economy (cont’d)
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Why little technological progress in Ming (明,
14th-17th century) & Qing (淸, 17th-early 20th
century) period?
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Not sufficient resources left for investment?
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Little incentive for investment in science and
technology under bureaucratic system combined
with Confucian ideology.
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Rural surplus not invested for tech. progress but
consumed lavishly by elites (landlord, gentry).
The smartest people invest their life for the exam to
become bureaucrats.
Not much demand for (labor-saving) technology
progress with too many population.
The Economy (cont’d)
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Highly commercialized economy formed during
Ming(明) and Qing (淸) period.
Nine distinctive regional economy (macroregions) formed, each with its core & periphery.
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Successful merchants got (bought) security &
respectability.
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Lower Yangzi region was the most advanced one.
Could become (absentee) landlord & even officials, but
never achieved mainstream high status.
State intervened in the economy substantially.
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Particularly, in urban production and commerce.
Monopoly of salt, copper, porcelain, foreign trade.
Cultural implications of its economy (or
its natural conditions)
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High dependency on nature (eg. rain) &
large population led to reverence and
acceptance of nature.
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Perception that ‘heaven nourishes and
destroys.’
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Accept nature, rather than trying to overcome it.
<cf: Western culture with mankind at the center.
Severe natural disasters even led to the
change of dynasties (thru revolution 易性革命).
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“mandate from heaven (天命)” is finished.
Cultural implications (cont’d)
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Importance of family with ‘father’ at the
center.
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Source of labor necessary for (rice) farming.
Group (family-extended family-clan-village)
orientedness with hierarchy.
 Aged over youth, male over female
(Confucian culture).
Both positive and negative implications.
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family: a source of civilized life even under poor
conditions.
individual was suppressed
(6) Limits of Imperial State
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Imperial Chinese state undertook minimal (limited)
range of functions.
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Propagate ideology, suppress rebellion, national
defense, public works (in particular, water works).
 <cf. modern state: economic development,
education, basic welfare, etc
Maintained limited number of bureaucrats & dispatched
(only upto) county level (magistrates).
When new challenges arose from Western
“industrial revolution”, imperial Chinese state
collapsed.
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Could not meet the demand for revenue extraction,
economic development, new approach to education.
But it left enduring legacies for China in later period.
2. Imperial Collapse
(1) Decline of the Qing(淸) Dynasty
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The Qing dynasty reached its peak in the late 18th
century, then declining.
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Prosperity led to population growth, being vulnerable to
natural/man-made disasters.
Weak emperors, corrupt officials, population pressure,
thin resources, etc.
Unrest began in border areas, then successive
rebellions in more populous areas.
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eg. White Lotus (白蓮) Rebellion, Taiping Rebellion (太平天國),
etc.
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Rise of local armies (by local gentries), weakened fiscal
base, ideological prestige suffered (selling office & title).
(2) Western Challenge
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Limited contact before 1800 – no serious challenge
to the Middle Kingdom (中國).
The leading European countries realized benefits of
industrial/transportation revolutions in 19th century.
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Seek raw material supplier, market of the products,
siphoning excess population, etc.
Wanted to draw China into the new international order.
China adopted minimal & piecemeal responses to the
growing pressure (of opening-up).
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Unintended consequences leading to new problems &
the original challenge (problem) unresolved.
Cumulatively more serious problem, ultimately
undermining the Qing dynasty & imperial system itself.
Western Challenge (cont’d)
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Opium War with Britain (1939-1940), and
subsequent wars with Western countries.
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China experienced humiliating defeats.
Western countries secured diverse concessions, while
supporting Beijing government.
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“Concession areas” established in the open cities,
as bases of foreigners.
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Five open port cities (eg. Shanghai).
“extra-territoriality”- foreign law applied to foreigners.
Sino-Japanese War(1895) gave a critical blow to
Qing.
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China was shocked by Japan equipped with Western
technology.
(3) Qing Response and Collapse
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Diverse approaches (responses) to the
outside challenges.
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“Isolation” (nativist) approach based on national
unity (& tradition).
“Selective Modernization” approach
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“Take the Chinese for basis, Western for practical
use (中體西用)”
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Untenable in reality due to ripple effect?
“Iconoclastic modernizer” approach.
 Change anything (traditional) for successful
modernization.
(3) Qing Response and Collapse
(cont’d)
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Decline accelerated after Sino-Japan
War (1895).
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Foreign countries scrambles for more concessions.
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Railroad construction & related interests, (gold) mine, etc.
Both internal reform attempt & conservative
backlash with “Boxer Rebellion”(義和團) failed.
Further reform attempted, but hastening decline of
the dynasty.
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Abolition of the exam recruiting officials created wide
scale dissatisfaction (among those who prepared it).
Sending young people abroad created revolutionaries.
(Collapse: cont’d)
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Republican Revolution (辛亥革命, 1911) attempted.
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Led by Sun Yat-sen (孫逸仙, 孫文, 孫中山) with support from
overseas Chinese.
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Republic of China (中華民國) declared in 1912, but the
revolutionaries could not took the power.
The last emperor “Pu Yi (溥儀)” abdicated by Yuan Shikai (袁
世凱), a high official of Qing.
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Also, supported by local interests in South China.
Became the first president of ROC, in turmoil of the Revolution.
The end of two millennia of imperial China.
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Not just collapse of one dynasty, but the imperial system
itself came to an end.
Western challenge eroded the base of the old Chinese order
(Confucian order), while Qing dynasty was declining.
The challenge continued thruout the 20th century.