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1 Environment the sum of all living and nonliving things that affect any living organism Environmental Science an interdisciplinary study that integrates information and ideas from the natural world and the social sciences that study how humans and their institutions interact with the natural world Ecology a biological science that studies the relationship and their environment Environmentalism a social movement dedicated to protecting the earth’s life support systems for us and other species Sustainability/durability the ability of earth’s various systems, including human cultural systems and economies, to survive and adapt to changing environmental conditions indefinitely o Path to sustainability: Natural Capital --> natural capital degradation --> solutions --> trade-offs --> individuals matter. Natural capital the natural resources and natural services that keep us and other species alive and support our economies Natural Capital= Natural Resources +Natural Services Environmentally Sustainable Society one that meets the current and future needs of its people for basic resources in a just and equitable manner without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs Most of the world’s MSW is buried in landfills that eventually are expected to leak toxic liquids into the soil and underlying aquifers. o Open dumps: are fields or holes in the ground where garbage is deposited and sometimes covered with soil. Mostly used in developing countries. o Sanitary landfills: solid wastes are spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered daily with a fresh layer of clay or plastic foam. Gross Domestic Product (GDP) the annual value of all goods and services produced by all farms and organizations, foreign and domestic operating in a country, measures economic growth Per capita GDP the GDP divided by the total population at mid year Developed countries US, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and most Euro countries. Highly industrialized high average per capita GDP o Developing countries most in Africa Asia and Latin America, some are Middle income, moderately developed countries others are low income countries Resource anything obtained from the environment to meet our needs and wants o Material resources from the envi are classified as perpetual, renewable, or nonrenewable Perpetual resource when something is renewed continuously on a human time scale (the sun) Renewable Resource can be replenished fairly rapidly through natural processes as long as it is not used up faster than it is replaced (water) Sustainable yield the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply Common-property/free access resources air, ocean fish, migrating birds. People are overusing and hurting them Tragedy of the Commons “If I don’t use this resource, someone else will. The little bit I use or pollute is not enough to matter, and such resources are renewable” – Biologist Garret Hardin Ecological footprint 2 amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply an area with resources and to absorb the wastes and pollution produced by such resource use Per capita ecological footprint the average ecological footprint of an individual in an area Pollution the presence of chemicals at high enough levels in air, water, soil, or food to threaten the health, survival, or activities of humans or other living organisms Point sources/Nonpoint Sources pollutants are single identifiable sources like a smokestack o Nonpoint sources pollutants are larger, dispersed and often difficult to indentify like pesticides blown in the wind Pollution Prevention Vs Cleanup Input pollution control reduces or eliminates the production of pollutants i.e. reducing amount of CO2 a smokestack produces Output pollution control is cleaning up or diluting existing pollutants i.e. a scrubber for a smoke stack Eras of Environmental Views Frontier era- people using up as many resources as possible because the environment is for humans to control and do what they want Early conservation era- people began to become concerned for resource depletion Environmental protection- era of environmental awareness and protection from the 1870's onward Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability Reliance on solar energy The sun warms the planet and supports photosynthesis used by plants to provide food for us and other animals Biodiversity A variety of genes, species, and ecosystems have provided many ways to adapt to changing environmental conditions Population Control Competition for resources limit the population growth Nutrient Recycling Natural processes recycle all natural resources and things o i.e. dead bodies decompose to fertilize plants for other animals to eat Polymers Formed when a number of siumples molecules(monomers) are linked by chemical bonds. 3 types of organic polymers Complex carbohydrate(2+ monomers) 2. proteins(monomers+amino acids) 3. nucleic acids(linking monomers) Genes Specific sequence of nucleotides found within a DNA molecule that contain information to make specific proteins Chromosomes Combination of genes that make up a single DNA molecule Plasma 4th state of matter that is a mixture of positively and negatively charged ions. Matter Quality Measure of how useful a form of matter is to humans as a resource based on its availability and concentration Material Efficiency Total amount of a product needed to produce each unit of good Physical change Chemical composition does not change(for example cutting something in half) Chemical change A change in composition of elements Law of Conservation When a physical change occurs; no atoms are created or destroyed 3 factors determine severity of pollution 3 Chemical nature 2. Concentration 3. Persistence Concentration(of pollution) Broken down by a living organism into simpler Measured in parts per million(ppm), 1 part chemicals pollutant to 1 million part which pollutant came Slowly degradable pollutants from Take decades or longer to break down Persistence(in pollution) Non degradable pollutants Measure of how long a pollutant stays in air, Natural processes cannot break them down water, soil, or body Nuclear changes Degradable pollutants Nuclei isotopes spontaneously change into Can be completely broken down different isotopes Biodegradable pollutant Natural radioactive decay Nuclear change in which unstable isotopes (radioactive isotopes/radioisotopes) spontaneously emit fast moving chunks of matter Half life The time needed for ½ of the nuclei in a given radioisotope to decay and emit their radiation to form a different isotope Nuclear fission Electrical Energy Nuclei with a large mass is split 2. Mechanical Energy 3. Light/electromagnetic energy Critical mass 4. Heat Amount needed in nuclei for nuclear fission to 5. Chemical Energy occur Kinetic Energy Chain Reaction Possessed by matter because of its mass and its Multiple fissions within a critical mass which speed of velocity releases an enormous amount of energy Heat Nuclear fusion Total kinetic energy in a substance 2 isotopes are forced together at high temperatures Electro magnetic radiation until they form one nucleus Energy travels as a wave Energy Energy quality The ability to do work and transfer heat Measure of energy source’s ability to do useful 5 types of energy work First Law of Thermodynamics In all physical and chemical changes energy is neither created nor destroyed Second Law of Thermodynamics When energy changes from one form to another some of the useful energy is always degraded to a lower quality, more dispersed less useful energy. Energy efficiency A measure of how much useful work is accomplished by a particular input of energy into a system The Nature of Ecology •Ecology is the study of connections in nature •It is essentially how organisms interact with one another and with their nonliving environment Organisms and Species •Organisms, the different forms of life on earth, can be classified into different species based on different characteristics • These are are further split into classifications: Insects (751,000 species), Protists (57,000), Prokaryotes (4,800), Fungi (69,000), Plants (245,400), Other animals (291,000) Members of a species interact in groups called populations •Populations of different species living and interacting in an area form a community •A community interacting with its physical environment of matter and energy is an ecosystem Populations 4 •A population is a group of interacting individuals of the same species occupying a specific area. • The space an individual or species normally occupies is its habitat • In most populations, there is genetic diversity Biosphere •The biosphere consists of several physical layers that contain: Air, Water, Soil, Minerals, Life • Atmosphere: Membrane of air around the planet • Stratosphere: Lower portion contains ozone to filter out harmful UV rays • Hydrosphere: All the earth's water • Lithosphere: The earth's crust and mantle What Happens to Solar Energy Reaching the Earth? •Solar energy flowing through the biosphere warms the atmosphere, evaporates and recycles water, generates winds and supports plant growth •It is also trapped by greenhouse gases Ecosystems consist of biotic and abiotic elements • Water, oxygen, and sunlight are all abiotic •Consumers, producers, and secondary consumers are all biotis elements of an ecosystem Limiting Factors •A limiting factor of an ecosystem is the availability of matter and enery resources. •When the availability is low, less species with live in that ecosystem Producers are the basic source of all food • Most producers capture sunlight to produce carbohydrates using photosynthesis • Other organisms, like those in the deep sea, use chemosynthesis Consumers •Consumers (heterotrophs), get their food by eating or braking down all or pars of other organisms or their remains • Herbivores: Primary consumers that eat products • Carnivores: Primary consumers who eat primary consumers, third level consumers are carnivores who feed on carnivores •Omnivores eat both plants and animals •Decomposers: Recycle nutrients in ecosystems • Detrivores: Insects or other scavengers that feed on wastes or dead bodies Soil Layers •O Horizon: Organic matter oLeaf litter and humus •A Horizon: Topsoil oHumus and mineral particles oPlant roots grow here •B Horizon: Subsoil oClay and mineral deposits •C Horizon: Parent material oBroken rock •Bedrock Composition of soil in different biomes •Desert soil: weak humus-mineral mixture •Grassland soil: alkaline, dark, rich in humus •Tropical rainforest soil: acidic light-colored humus 5 •Deciduous forest soil: humus-mineral mixture •Coniferous forest soil: acid litter and humus Human activities that affect the water cycle •Withdrawing large quantities of freshwater •Clearing vegetation •Polluting surface water •Polluting underground water •Contributing to climate change Carbon Cycle Human activities that impact the carbon cycle •The addition of excess carbon dioxide to the air, in several ways: oburning fossil fuels oclearing plants and vegetation (e.g. tropical rain forest destruction) • Human emissions of carbon dioxide have increased through the years Nitrogen Cycle Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle •Polluting the air with gases that help to form acid rain •Contaminating groundwater with fertilizers •Deforestation - releasing nitrogen into the atmosphere •Adding nitrous oxide to the atmosphere, which can lead to the depletion of ozone Phosphorus Cycle Human impacts on the phosphorus cycle •Making fertilizer - taking phosphorus from the Earth •Clearing forests - reducing the amount of phosporus in soils •Animal waste and fertilizer runoff - adds excess phosphorus to the water supply Sulfur Cycle Geographic Information Systems (GIS) •Maps •Allows for the analysis of data •Shows spatial relationships •Different layers oCan be turned on and off Weather An area's temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind speed, cloud cover, and other physical conditions of the lower atmosphere over hours or days Climate A region's general pattern of atmospheric or weather conditions over a long time--years, decades, and centuries. Latitude Average temperature and average precip. is closely related to the distance from the equator, or, latitude. 6 Elevation How high something is above sea level. Polar Grasslands/Arctic Tundras Treeless plains that are covered with ice and snow except for during a brief summer Permafrost Underground soil in which captured water stays frozen for more than 2 consecutive years Alpine Tundra A type of tundra that occurs above the limit of tree growth but below the permanent snow line on high mountains -more vegetation than arctic tundra and no permafrost layer Chaparral Temperate shrubland with a moderate climate Forest Biome with enough average annual precipatation (at least 30 inches) to support growth of tree species and smaller forms of vegetation Tropical Rain Forests Biomes found near the equator where hot, moisture-laden air rises and dumps its moisture Year round uniformly warm temperatures, heavy humidity, and heavy rainfall almost daily Tropical Dry Forests Forests found in tropical areas with warm temperatures year round and wet and dry seasons Tree heights are lower and tree canopies are less dense than in tropical rainforests Temperate Deciduous Forests Forests that grow in areas with moderate average temperatures that change significantly with the season Long cold summers, cold but not too severe winters, and abundant precipitation Evergreen Coniferous Forests a.k.a Boreal forests or Taigas Forests that consist mostly of cone-bearing evergreen trees that keep their needles year-round to help the trees survive long and cold winters Temperate Rain Forests Forests found in scattered coastal temperate areas with ample rainfall or moisture from dense ocean fogs Mountains High-elevation forested islands of biodiversity and often have snow-covered peaks that reflect solar radiation and gradually release water to lower-elevation streams and ecosystems Biomes Large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals, regardless of where they are found in the world. Prevailing Winds Major surface winds that blow almost continuously and distribute air, moisture, and dust over the earth's surface. Greenhouse Effect Natural warming of the troposphere Greenhouse Gases Allow mostly visible light and some infrared radiation and ultraviolet radiation from the sun to pass through the troposphere. Monsoons Continents lying north or south of warm oceans experience heavy rains called 'monsoons'. Desert An area where evaporation exceeds precipitation Annual precipitation is very low Cover about 30% of the earth's land surface; found mostly in tropical and subtropical regions. Tropical Deserts Hot and dry most of the year. Flew plants and a hard, windblown surface strewn with rocks and some sand. Temperate Desert Daytime temperatures are high in summer and low in winter and there is more precipitation than in tropical deserts. 7 Sparse vegetation consists mostly of widely dispersed, drought-resistant shrubs and cacti or other succulents adapted to the lack of water and temp. Grasslands/Prairies Occur mostly in the interiors of continents in areas too moist for deserts and too dry for forests. Savanna A type of tropical grassland dotted with widely scattered clumps of trees such as acacia, which are covered with thorns to keep herbivores away. Temperate Grasslands Temperate grasslands once covered vast expanses of plains and gently rolling hills in the interiors of North and South America, Europe, and Asia. Include both short-grass and tall-grass prairies of the midwestern and western United States and Canada. Earth is about 4.5 billion years old Rock layers (strata) are laid down in succession with each strata representing a slice of time Superposition- any given stratum is older than those above it and younger than those below it 3.5 billion~4.5 billion years ago: earth cools 1.5 billion~3.5 billion years ago: prokaryotes develop 700 million~1.5 billion years ago: eukaryotes develop 400 million~700 million years ago: multicellular life develops in seas 400 million years ago: multicellular life begins to develop on land All present day continents derived from one land mass (Pangaea) Pangaea began to break apart ~ 200 million years ago Theory backed up by: o Fossilized tropical plants found beneath ice caps o Glaciated landscapes occur in Africa and South America o Paleoclimatic data shows current tropical regions had polar climates in the past o Continents fit together like pieces from a puzzle o Similarities in rocks between the Americas and Africa-Europe Sea floor spreading Occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge Helps explain the continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics Subduction zones are areas on the earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other, with one sliding underneath the other and moving down into the mantle Subduction zones are noted for producing devastating earthquakes because of the intense geological activity A volcano is an opening or a rupture in the crust that allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from below the surface Generally found where tectonic plates are pulled apart, or come together. Examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge has volcanoes caused by divergent (pulling apart) tectonic plates; Pacific Ring of Fire has volcanoes caused by convergent (coming together) tectonic plates. Volcanoes can also form where there is thinning and stretching of the earth’s crust (e.g., African Rift Valley) Atmospheric Effects of Volcanoes(23) CO2 gas introduced into atmosphere by volcanoes is approximately 150 times less than CO2 produced by manmade activity. Most acidic gases from volcanoes are released into the troposphere, and eventually are washed out by rain. Can affect acid rain effects. 8 Volcanic eruptions enhance the haze effect and thus lower mean global temperatures. Sulfur combines with water vapor in the stratosphere to form dense clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets that take several years to settle out and absorb solar radiation and scatter it back to space. Factors that affect the amount of solar energy at the surface of the earth (which is directly correlated with plant productivity) include: Earth's rotation(once every 24 hours) Earth's revolution around the sun(once per year) Tilt of the Earth's axis Atmospheric conditions Summer occurs in the Northern Hemisphere when the Earth is oriented more toward the Sun. The Earth is closer to the sun during the Northern Hemisphere winter (it is the angle of the Sun's rays that determines intensity of solar radiation). HORIZON Surface Litter: leaves and partially decomposed organic debris. May be very thick in deciduous forests and very thin in tundra and desert. A HORIZON Topsoil: organic matter(humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals. The topsoil is typically very thick in grasslands. E HORIZON Zone of leaching: dissolved and suspended materials move downward. B HORIZON Subsoil: tends to be yellowish in color due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic compounds, and clay leached down from the A and E horizons. It can be rich in nutrients in areas where rainwater leeched from nutrients from the topsoil. C HORIZON Weathered parent material: partially broken-down inorganic materials. Bedrock Clay: very fine particles. Compacts easily. FOrms large, dense clumps when wet. Low permeability to water; therefore, upper layers become waterlogged. Gravel: coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments, Loam: about equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt, and humus. Rich in nutrients. Holds water but does not become waterlogged. Sand: sedimentary material coarser than sit. Water flows through too quickly for most crops. Good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water. Silt: sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of sand and clay. Easily transported by water. Topsoil is the most productive soil layer Soil has varying amounts of organic matter, minerals, and nutrients Natural processes can take more than 500 years to form 1 inch of topsoil Soil is formed from rocks and decaying plants and animals An average soil sample is 45% minerals, 25%water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter Organic Fertilizers -Three common forms: animal manure, green manure, and compost. -Improves soil texture, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates beneficial bacteria and fungi. -Disadvantages: high cost to transport (growing crops is separated from raising animals); mechanization has replaced many animals with machinery. -Improves water-holding capacity of soil. -Helps to prevent erosion. Inorganic Fertilizers -Does not add humus to the soil, resulting in less ability to hold water and support living organisms (earthworms, beneficial bacteria and fungi, etc.) 9 -Lowers oxygen content of the soil thereby keeping fertilizer from being taken up efficiently. -Supplies only a limited number of nutrients (usually nitrogen and phosphorous). -Requires large amounts of energy to produce, transport, and apply. -Releases nitrous oxide (N2O)- a greenhouse gas. Desertification Definition: productive potential of arid or semiarid land falls by at least 10 percent or more due to human activity and/or climate change. Symptoms: loss of native vegetation; increased wind erosion; salinization; drop in water table; reduced surface water supply. Remediation: reduce overgrazing; reduce deforestation; reduce destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and mining. Plant trees and grasses to hold soil. Salinization Definition: water that is not absorbed into the soil and evaporates, which leaves behind dissolved salts in topsoil. Symptoms: stunted crop growth; lower yield; eventual destruction of plant life. Remediation: take land out of production for 2-5 years; install underground perforated drainage pipes; flush soil with fresh water into separate lined evaporation ponds; plant halophytes (salt-loving plants) such as barley, cotton, sugar beet, and/or semidwarf wheat. Igneous rocks are formed either underground or above ground. Underground, they are formed when the melted rock, called magma, deep within the Earth becomes trapped in small pockets. As these pockets of magma cool slowly underground, the magma becomes igneous rocks. Igneous rocks are also formed when volcanoes erupt, causing the magma to rise above the Earth's surface. When magma appears above the Earth, it is called lava. Igneous rocks are formed as the lava cools above ground Metamorphic rocks are formed by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above. They can be formed by tectonic processes, such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction, and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior. Sedimentary rocks are formed as particles of sediment buildup. Pressure squeezes the sediment into layered solids in a process known as lithification. Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. New rock layers that are above the older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition. Sedimentary rocks contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals. Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment that have occurred over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not destroy fossil remains. Nitrogen (N2) constitutes 78% of all gas in the atmosphere -Fundamental nutrient for living organisms -Deposits on Earth through nitrogen fixation and reactions involving lightning and subsequent precipitation -Returns to the atmosphere through combustion of biomass and dentrification -Twenty-one percent of all gases in the atmosphere is oxygen (o2) -Produced through photosynthesis and utilized in cellular respiration Photosynthesis: 6CO2+12H2O->C6H12O6+6H2O The Thermosphere begins about 90 km (56 miles) above the earth's surface 10 Temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation by the small amount of residual oxygen still present The upper region of this atmospheric layer is called the ionosphere where ultraviolet radiation causes ionization to occur Methane (CH4) constitutes much less than 1 percent of all gases in the atmosphere but is influential as a greenhouse gas. -Since 1750, methane gas has increased~150% due to use of fossil fuels, coal mining, flooding of rice fields, livestock -Humans contribute~400 million tons of CH4 per year compared to ~200 million tons produced through natural processes. sun heats atmosphere unevenly air closest to surface is warmer and rises air at higher elevations is cooler and sinks this rising and falling sets up convection processes and is primary cause of winds Global air circulation is caused and affected by o o o o o uneven heating of the earths surface seasons coriolis effect amount of solar radiation reaching earth's surface over period of time convection cells created by areas of warm ocean water that in turn are caused by differences in water density, winds, and the earth's rotation Coriolis Effect as air moves from high to low pressure in the northern hemisphere, it is deflected to the right by the coriolis force (spiral clockwise out from high pressure areas) in the southern hemisphere, air moving from high to low pressure is deflected to the left (spiral counterclockwise in toward low pressure areas. slowly blowing winds wil be deflected only a small amount, whereas stronger winds will be deflected more winds blowing closer to the poles will be deflected more than winds at the same speed closer to the equator the coriolis force is zero at the equator Hadley Air Cell Circulation pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere (between 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south) characterized by: o rising air motion near the equator o poleward wind flow 10-15 km (6-9 miles) above surface o descending air motion in the tropics o equator-ward air flow near the surface o trade winds occur in this region The Hadley cell carries heat and moisture from the tropics to the northern and southern mid-latitudes Having lost most of its water vapor to condensation and rain in the upward branch of the circulation, the descending air is dry. Many of the world's deserts are located in these subtropical latitudes The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. -The troposphere contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and almost all of its water vapor. -The average depth of the troposphere is deeper in the tropical regions (up to 20km and shallower near the poles (about 7km) -The temp. of the troposphere decreases with height, while saturation vapor pressure decreases with temp. 11 -The pressure of the atmosphere is the maximum at the surface and decreases with higher altitude -The temp. of the troposphere generally decreases as altitude increases. Stratosphere is situated between 10km and 50km altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes. -The stratosphere is stratified in temp., with warmer layers higher up and cooler layers farther down. At night, the land cools off quicker than the ocean due to diff. in their specific heat values, which forces the dying of the daytime sea breeze. -If the land cools below that of the adjacent sea surface temp., the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the land, setting up a land breeze. Causes of El Nino (ENSO) rise in air pressure over Australia , the Indian ocean, and Indonesia fall in air pressure over rest of the central and eastern pacific ocean trade winds in the south pacific weaken or head east warm air rises near peru, causing rain in deserts warm water spreads from west pacific and indian ocean to east pacific, taking rain with it and causing rainfall in normally dry areas and excessive drought in eastern areas Ecuador and northern Peru: warm and very wet summers causing major flooding northern Australia and southeast asia: drier conditions result in bush fire haze north america: winter warmer than normal in upper midwest states, the NE, and canada. central and suth cali, NW mexico , and and SW US are wetter and cooler than normal. summer is wetter in the intermountain region of US pacific NW states: dry but foggy winters and warm sunny springs US pacific Coast: increased waves cause coastal erosion ATLANTIC COEAST: Decreased hurricane activity south of 25N latitude East Africa: long rains from march to may South-central Africa: drier than normal from dec to feb Causes of Upwelling Key factor is Coriolis effect Wind driven currents tend to be driven to the right of winds in the Northern Hemishphere and left of winds Southern hemisphere in N Hem, when winds blow either toward equator along eastern ocean boundary or toward poles along western ocean boundary, surface waters driven away from coasts and An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and microorganism (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the nonliving (abiotic) factors of the environment. o organisms> species> populations> communities> ecosystems> biosphere Niche Structure- Number of ecological niches; how they resemble or differ from each other; includes species interactions Physical Appearance- Relative size; stratification; distribution of populations and species Species Diversity- Number of different species Species Abundance- Number of individuals of each species. Population Dispersal Clumped-some areas within the habitat are dense with organisms; others contain few members Linear- individuals are in straight lines Random-little interaction between members of the population leading to random spacing patterns Uniform - Fairly uniform spacing between individuals Specialist Species Live in narrow niches and are sensitive to environmental changes. More prone to extinction than generalists 12 When environmental conditions are stable, specialist species have an advantage because there are few competitors as each species occupies its own unique niche. Example: Giant panda Generalist Species Live in broad niches Able to withstand a wide range of environmental conditions. When habitats are subjected to rapid changes, the generalists fare better because they are more adaptable. Examples: Cockroaches, mice, humans Symbiosis Describes close and often long term interactions between different biological species Symbiotic relationships include those associates in which one organism lives on another (ectosymbiosis, such as mistletoe), or where one partner lives inside another ( endosumbiosis, such as lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or zooxanthelles in corals) Symbiotic relationships may be either obligate, that is, necessary to the survival of at least one of the organisms involved, or facultative, where the relationship is beneficial but not essential to survival of the organisms Amensalism (- 0)- one species is harmed, the other is unaffected Chemical interaction is known as allelopathy. Examples: penicillin, black walnut Commensalism (+ 0)- one species is benefited, the other is unaffected Transportation (phoresy)- Examples: remora on a shark, mites on dung beetles Housing (inquilinism)-Example: orchids growing on trees Using things created by other organisms (metabiosis)- Example: hermit crabs. Competition (+,-) - the simultaneous demand by two or more organisms for limited environmental resources, such as nutrients, living space, or light. Intraspecific (within) competition- Example: two trees of the same species growing close together will compete for light, water, and nutrients in the soil. Interspecific (between) competition-Example: cheetahs and lions hunting the same prey o Driving force of evolution Factors Contributing to Rise in Sea Levels (#82) Thermal expansion of water at higher temperatures. -Melting of ice caps and glaciers due to global warming. -Land buildup or erosion of mountains. -Plate tectonic effects Dams and Reservoirs +Advantages: -Provide an inexpensive source of electricity without using fossil fuels. -Provide a year-round supply of irrigation for crops -Flooding is reduced -Provide resources for recreation Colorado River Basin -Sedimentation -Groundwater and oil extraction. -Changes in ocean currents and tides. -Distribution changes in the water cycle. +Disadvantages -Migration and spawning of some fish are disrupted -Croplands downstream are deprived of nutrient rich soil -Large losses of water through evaporation -Flooded land displaces people 13 Diversion of water from the Colorado River has led to water rights disputes between Arizona, California, and Mexico. Dams on the Colorado River trap large quantities of silt (over 10 million metric tons per year) and reduce nutrient levels in farmlands below the dam. As a result, more fertilizer is required. Farm irrigation has resulted in high levels of sodium chloride in the alkaline soils to become incorporated in agricultural runoff. Millions of acres of oncevaluable farmland are now useless due to the salt buildup in soil, a process known as salinization The Ogallala Aquifer underlies eight states from North Dakota to Texas. The Orgallala Aquifer used to hold more freshwater than all freshwater lakes, streams, and rivers on Earth. Due to pumping of the groundwater for agriculture, domestic, and industrial uses, many locations are experiencing water shortages In 1949, China had no large reservoirs and only 40 small hydroelectric stations. By 1985, there were 80,000 reservoirs and 70,000 hydroelectric stations. The Three Gorges Dam required relocation of 1.2 million people Clean Water Act Sets objectives for restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters. Regulates discharge of pollutants and requires federal agencies to avoid adverse impacts from modification or destruction of navigable streams and associated tributaries, wetlands, or other waters Desert Organisms Most are small and have small surface areas to reduce water loss Spend time in burrows Often nocturnal Aestivation Able to metabolize dry seeds Kangaroo rats secrete concentrated urine Insects and reptiles have think outer scales Edge Effect The effect of an abrupt transition between two different adjoining ecological communities on the numbers and kinds of organisms in the marginal habitat Involves issues with boundaries between natural habitats; for example, the boundary between forests and developed land. Especially, pronounced in small habitat fragments where the edge effect may extend throughout. Example : In a clear cutting, sun and wind penetrate more, drying out the interior of the forest near the clearing Statutory Law- laws developed/passed by legislative bodies such as the federal and state gov'ts. Administrative Law- laws that consist of administrative rules and regulations, executive orders, and enforcement decisions related to implementation and interpretation of statutory laws. Common Law- a body of unwritten rules and principles derived from thousands of past legal decisions along with commonly accepted practices (norms) within a society. NGO's- Non-Governmental Organizations, such as labor unions and environmental organizations. The Scientific Method – know it Transpiration: water evaporates from plants, helping to pull the water through the plant Clearcutting v. Selective Cutting Carrying Capacity (k): how large a population it can sustainably hold Native v. invasive species Epidemiology: the statistical study of disease in human populations Dissolved Oxygen 14 Eutrophication: too much organic matter gets into the water and the dissolved oxygen is rapidly used and other organisms die NEPA (National Environmental Protection Act 1970: to consider environmental effects of major federal action Nees to make US has any an environmental impact statement (EIS) Clean Air Act 1970 Endangered Species No taking of No modification Act 1973 any endangered organisms of habitat Clean Water Act (1977, 1987) Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): Superfund Program Bad guys have to clean up stuff As a response to Love Canal International CITES – Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species 1975 Montreal Protocol 1987- against CFCs – good work! Kyoto Protocol 1987 Aimed to lower greenhouse gases