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Environment
 the sum of all living and nonliving things that affect any living organism
Environmental Science
 an interdisciplinary study that integrates information and ideas from the natural world and the social sciences that
study how humans and their institutions interact with the natural world
Ecology
 a biological science that studies the relationship and their environment
Environmentalism
 a social movement dedicated to protecting the earth’s life support systems for us and other species
 Sustainability/durability
 the ability of earth’s various systems, including human
cultural systems and economies, to survive and adapt to
changing environmental conditions indefinitely
o Path to sustainability: Natural Capital --> natural
capital degradation --> solutions --> trade-offs -->
individuals matter.
Natural capital
 the natural resources and natural services that keep us and
other species alive and support our economies
 Natural Capital= Natural Resources +Natural Services
Environmentally Sustainable Society
 one that meets the current and future needs of its people for
basic resources in a just and equitable manner without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
needs
Most of the world’s MSW is buried in landfills that eventually are expected to leak toxic liquids into the soil and
underlying aquifers.
o Open dumps: are fields or holes in the ground where garbage is deposited and sometimes covered with soil.
Mostly used in developing countries.
o Sanitary landfills: solid wastes are spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered daily with a fresh layer
of clay or plastic foam.
Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
 the annual value of all goods and services produced by all farms and organizations, foreign and domestic operating in
a country, measures economic growth
 Per capita GDP the GDP divided by the total population at mid year
Developed countries US, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and most Euro countries. Highly industrialized high average
per capita GDP
o Developing countries most in Africa Asia and Latin America, some are Middle income, moderately
developed countries others are low income countries
Resource
 anything obtained from the environment to meet our needs and wants
o Material resources from the envi are classified as perpetual, renewable, or nonrenewable
Perpetual resource
 when something is renewed continuously on a human time scale (the sun)
Renewable Resource
 can be replenished fairly rapidly through natural processes as long as it is not used up faster than it is replaced (water)
Sustainable yield
 the highest rate at which a renewable resource can be used indefinitely without reducing its available supply
Common-property/free access resources
 air, ocean fish, migrating birds. People are
overusing and hurting them
Tragedy of the Commons
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“If I don’t use this resource, someone else will.
The little bit I use or pollute is not enough to
matter, and such resources are renewable” –
Biologist Garret Hardin
Ecological footprint
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
amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply an area with resources and to absorb the wastes
and pollution produced by such resource use
 Per capita ecological footprint the average ecological footprint of an individual in an area
Pollution
 the presence of chemicals at high enough levels in air, water, soil, or food to threaten the health, survival, or activities
of humans or other living organisms
Point sources/Nonpoint Sources
 pollutants are single identifiable sources like a smokestack
o Nonpoint sources pollutants are larger, dispersed and often difficult to indentify like pesticides blown in the
wind
Pollution
 Prevention Vs Cleanup
 Input pollution control reduces or eliminates the production of pollutants i.e. reducing amount of CO2 a smokestack
produces
 Output pollution control is cleaning up or diluting existing pollutants i.e. a scrubber for a smoke stack
Eras of Environmental Views
 Frontier era- people using up as many resources as possible because the environment is for humans to control and do
what they want
 Early conservation era- people began to become concerned for resource depletion
 Environmental protection- era of environmental awareness and protection from the 1870's onward
Four Scientific Principles of Sustainability
 Reliance on solar energy
 The sun warms the planet and supports photosynthesis used by plants to provide food for us and other animals
 Biodiversity
 A variety of genes, species, and ecosystems have provided many ways to adapt to changing environmental conditions
 Population Control
 Competition for resources limit the population growth
 Nutrient Recycling
 Natural processes recycle all natural resources and things
o i.e. dead bodies decompose to fertilize plants for other animals to eat
Polymers
 Formed when a number of siumples molecules(monomers) are linked by chemical bonds.
 3 types of organic polymers
 Complex carbohydrate(2+ monomers)
2. proteins(monomers+amino acids)
3. nucleic acids(linking monomers)
Genes
 Specific sequence of nucleotides found within a DNA molecule that contain information to make specific proteins
Chromosomes
 Combination of genes that make up a single DNA molecule
Plasma
 4th state of matter that is a mixture of positively and negatively charged ions.
Matter Quality
 Measure of how useful a form of matter is to humans as a resource based on its availability and concentration
Material Efficiency
 Total amount of a product needed to produce each unit of good
Physical change
 Chemical composition does not change(for example cutting
something in half)
Chemical change
 A change in composition of elements
Law of Conservation
 When a physical change occurs; no atoms are created or destroyed
 3 factors determine severity of pollution
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Chemical nature
2. Concentration
3. Persistence
Concentration(of pollution)
 Broken down by a living organism into simpler
 Measured in parts per million(ppm), 1 part
chemicals
pollutant to 1 million part which pollutant came
Slowly degradable pollutants
from
 Take decades or longer to break down
Persistence(in pollution)
Non degradable pollutants
 Measure of how long a pollutant stays in air,
 Natural processes cannot break them down
water, soil, or body
Nuclear changes
Degradable pollutants
 Nuclei isotopes spontaneously change into
 Can be completely broken down
different isotopes
Biodegradable pollutant
Natural radioactive decay
 Nuclear change in which unstable isotopes (radioactive isotopes/radioisotopes) spontaneously emit fast moving chunks
of matter
Half life
 The time needed for ½ of the nuclei in a given radioisotope to decay and emit their radiation to form a different isotope
Nuclear fission
 Electrical Energy
 Nuclei with a large mass is split
2. Mechanical Energy
3. Light/electromagnetic energy
Critical mass
4. Heat
 Amount needed in nuclei for nuclear fission to
5. Chemical Energy
occur
Kinetic Energy
Chain Reaction
 Possessed by matter because of its mass and its
 Multiple fissions within a critical mass which
speed of velocity
releases an enormous amount of energy
Heat
Nuclear fusion
 Total kinetic energy in a substance
 2 isotopes are forced together at high temperatures
Electro
magnetic radiation
until they form one nucleus
 Energy travels as a wave
Energy
Energy quality
 The ability to do work and transfer heat
 Measure of energy source’s ability to do useful
5 types of energy
work
First Law of Thermodynamics
 In all physical and chemical changes energy is neither created nor destroyed
Second Law of Thermodynamics
 When energy changes from one form to another some of the useful energy is always
degraded to a lower quality, more dispersed less useful energy.
Energy efficiency
 A measure of how much useful work is accomplished by a particular input of energy
into a system
The Nature of Ecology
•Ecology is the study of connections in nature
•It is essentially how organisms interact with one another and with their nonliving
environment
Organisms and Species
•Organisms, the different forms of life on earth, can be classified into different species based
on different characteristics
• These are are further split into classifications: Insects (751,000 species), Protists (57,000), Prokaryotes (4,800), Fungi
(69,000), Plants (245,400), Other animals (291,000)
Members of a species interact in groups called populations
•Populations of different species living and interacting in an area form a community
•A community interacting with its physical environment of matter and energy is an ecosystem
Populations
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•A population is a group of
interacting individuals of the same
species occupying a specific area.
• The space an individual or
species normally occupies is its
habitat
• In most populations, there is
genetic diversity
Biosphere
•The biosphere consists of several physical layers that contain: Air, Water, Soil,
Minerals, Life
• Atmosphere: Membrane of air around the planet
• Stratosphere: Lower portion contains ozone to filter out harmful UV rays
• Hydrosphere: All the earth's water
• Lithosphere: The earth's crust and mantle
What Happens to Solar Energy Reaching the Earth?
•Solar energy flowing through the biosphere warms the atmosphere, evaporates and recycles
water, generates winds and supports plant growth
•It is also trapped by greenhouse gases
Ecosystems consist of biotic and abiotic elements
• Water, oxygen, and sunlight are all abiotic
•Consumers, producers, and secondary consumers are all biotis elements of an ecosystem
Limiting Factors
•A limiting factor of an ecosystem is the availability of matter and enery resources.
•When the availability is low, less species with live in that ecosystem
Producers are the basic source of all food
• Most producers capture sunlight to produce carbohydrates using photosynthesis
• Other organisms, like those in the deep sea, use chemosynthesis
Consumers
•Consumers (heterotrophs), get their food by eating or braking down all or pars of other organisms or their remains
• Herbivores: Primary consumers that eat products
• Carnivores: Primary consumers who eat primary consumers, third level consumers are carnivores who feed on carnivores
•Omnivores eat both plants and animals
•Decomposers: Recycle nutrients in ecosystems
• Detrivores: Insects or other scavengers that feed on wastes
or dead bodies
Soil Layers
•O Horizon: Organic matter
oLeaf litter and humus
•A Horizon: Topsoil
oHumus and mineral particles
oPlant roots grow here
•B Horizon: Subsoil
oClay and mineral deposits
•C Horizon: Parent material
oBroken rock
•Bedrock
Composition of soil in different biomes
•Desert soil: weak humus-mineral mixture
•Grassland soil: alkaline, dark, rich in humus
•Tropical rainforest soil: acidic light-colored humus
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•Deciduous forest soil: humus-mineral
mixture
•Coniferous forest soil: acid litter and
humus
Human activities that affect the water cycle
•Withdrawing large quantities of
freshwater
•Clearing vegetation
•Polluting surface water
•Polluting underground water
•Contributing to climate change
Carbon Cycle
Human activities that impact the carbon cycle
•The addition of excess carbon dioxide to the air, in several ways:
oburning fossil fuels
oclearing plants and vegetation (e.g. tropical rain forest destruction)
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Human emissions of carbon dioxide have increased through the years
Nitrogen Cycle
Human impacts on the nitrogen cycle
•Polluting the air with gases that help to form acid rain
•Contaminating groundwater with fertilizers
•Deforestation - releasing nitrogen into the atmosphere
•Adding nitrous oxide to the atmosphere, which can lead to the depletion of
ozone
Phosphorus Cycle
Human impacts on the phosphorus cycle
•Making fertilizer - taking phosphorus from the
Earth
•Clearing forests - reducing the amount of
phosporus in soils
•Animal waste and fertilizer runoff - adds excess
phosphorus to the water supply
Sulfur Cycle
Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
•Maps
•Allows for the analysis of data
•Shows spatial relationships
•Different layers
oCan be turned on and off
Weather
 An area's temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind
speed, cloud cover, and other physical conditions of the
lower atmosphere over hours or days
Climate
 A region's general pattern of atmospheric or weather
conditions over a long time--years, decades, and
centuries.
Latitude
 Average temperature and average precip. is closely
related to the distance from the equator, or, latitude.
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Elevation
 How high something is above sea level.
Polar Grasslands/Arctic Tundras
Treeless plains that are covered with ice and snow except for during a brief summer
Permafrost
 Underground soil in which captured water stays frozen for more than 2 consecutive years
Alpine Tundra
 A type of tundra that occurs above the limit of tree growth but below the permanent snow line on high mountains
 -more vegetation than arctic tundra and no permafrost layer
Chaparral
 Temperate shrubland with a moderate climate
Forest
 Biome with enough average annual precipatation (at least 30 inches)
to support growth of tree species and smaller forms of vegetation
Tropical Rain Forests
 Biomes found near the equator where hot, moisture-laden air rises
and dumps its moisture
 Year round uniformly warm temperatures, heavy humidity, and
heavy rainfall almost daily
Tropical Dry Forests
 Forests found in tropical areas with warm temperatures year round
and wet and dry seasons
 Tree heights are lower and tree canopies are less dense than in tropical rainforests
Temperate Deciduous Forests
 Forests that grow in areas with moderate average temperatures that change significantly with the season
 Long cold summers, cold but not too severe winters, and abundant precipitation
Evergreen Coniferous Forests
 a.k.a Boreal forests or Taigas
 Forests that consist mostly of cone-bearing evergreen trees that keep their needles year-round to help the trees survive
long and cold winters
Temperate Rain Forests
 Forests found in scattered coastal temperate areas with ample rainfall or moisture from dense ocean fogs
Mountains
 High-elevation forested islands of biodiversity and often have snow-covered peaks that reflect solar radiation and
gradually release water to lower-elevation streams and ecosystems
Biomes
 Large terrestrial regions characterized by similar climate, soil, plants, and animals, regardless of where they are found
in the world.
Prevailing Winds
 Major surface winds that blow almost continuously and distribute air, moisture, and dust over the earth's surface.
Greenhouse Effect
 Natural warming of the troposphere
Greenhouse Gases
 Allow mostly visible light and some infrared radiation and ultraviolet radiation from the sun to pass through the
troposphere.
Monsoons
 Continents lying north or south of warm oceans experience heavy rains called 'monsoons'.
Desert
 An area where evaporation exceeds precipitation
 Annual precipitation is very low
 Cover about 30% of the earth's land surface; found mostly in tropical
and subtropical regions.
Tropical Deserts
 Hot and dry most of the year.
 Flew plants and a hard, windblown surface strewn with rocks and some
sand.
Temperate Desert
 Daytime temperatures are high in summer and low in winter and there is more precipitation than in tropical deserts.
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Sparse vegetation consists mostly of widely dispersed, drought-resistant shrubs and cacti or other succulents adapted
to the lack of water and temp.
Grasslands/Prairies
 Occur mostly in the interiors of continents in areas too moist for deserts and too dry for forests.
Savanna
 A type of tropical grassland dotted with widely scattered clumps of trees such as acacia, which are covered with thorns
to keep herbivores away.
Temperate Grasslands
 Temperate grasslands once covered vast expanses of plains and gently rolling hills in the interiors of North and South
America, Europe, and Asia.
 Include both short-grass and tall-grass prairies of the midwestern and western United States and Canada.
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Earth is about 4.5 billion years old
Rock layers (strata) are laid down in succession with each strata representing a slice of time
Superposition- any given stratum is older than those above it and younger than those below it
3.5 billion~4.5 billion years ago: earth cools
1.5 billion~3.5 billion years ago: prokaryotes develop
700 million~1.5 billion years ago: eukaryotes develop
400 million~700 million years ago: multicellular life develops in
seas
400 million years ago: multicellular life begins to develop on land
All present day continents derived from one land mass
(Pangaea)
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Pangaea began to break apart ~ 200 million years ago
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Theory backed up by:
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Fossilized tropical plants found beneath ice caps
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Glaciated landscapes occur in Africa and South
America
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Paleoclimatic data shows current tropical regions had polar climates in the past
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Continents fit together like pieces from a puzzle
o Similarities in rocks between the Americas and Africa-Europe
Sea floor spreading
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Occurs at mid-ocean ridges where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually
moves away from the ridge
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Helps explain the continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics
Subduction zones are areas on the earth where two tectonic plates meet and move toward each other, with one
sliding underneath the other and moving down into the mantle
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Subduction zones are noted for producing devastating earthquakes because of the intense geological
activity
A volcano is an opening or a rupture in the crust that allows hot, molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from below
the surface
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Generally found where tectonic plates are pulled apart, or come
together. Examples: Mid-Atlantic Ridge has volcanoes caused by
divergent (pulling apart) tectonic plates; Pacific Ring of Fire has
volcanoes caused by convergent (coming together) tectonic plates.
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Volcanoes can also form where there is thinning and stretching of the
earth’s crust (e.g., African Rift Valley)
Atmospheric Effects of Volcanoes(23)
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CO2 gas introduced into atmosphere by volcanoes is approximately 150 times
less than CO2 produced by manmade activity.
Most acidic gases from volcanoes are released into the troposphere, and
eventually are washed out by rain. Can affect acid rain effects.
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Volcanic eruptions enhance the haze effect and thus lower mean global temperatures. Sulfur combines with water
vapor in the stratosphere to form dense clouds of tiny sulfuric acid droplets that take several years to settle out and
absorb solar radiation and scatter it back to space.
Factors that affect the amount of solar energy at the surface of the earth (which is directly correlated with plant
productivity) include:
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Earth's rotation(once every 24 hours)
Earth's revolution around the sun(once per year)
Tilt of the Earth's axis
Atmospheric conditions
Summer occurs in the Northern Hemisphere when the Earth is oriented more toward the Sun.
The Earth is closer to the sun during the Northern Hemisphere winter (it is the angle of the Sun's rays that determines
intensity of solar radiation).
HORIZON
 Surface Litter: leaves and partially decomposed organic debris. May be very thick in deciduous forests and very thin
in tundra and desert.
A HORIZON
 Topsoil: organic matter(humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals. The topsoil is typically very thick in
grasslands.
E HORIZON
 Zone of leaching: dissolved and suspended materials move downward.
B HORIZON
 Subsoil: tends to be yellowish in color due to the accumulation of iron, aluminum, humic
compounds, and clay leached down from the A and E horizons. It can be rich in nutrients in
areas where rainwater leeched from nutrients from the topsoil.
C HORIZON
 Weathered parent material: partially broken-down inorganic materials.
Bedrock
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Clay: very fine particles. Compacts easily. FOrms large, dense clumps when wet. Low
permeability to water; therefore, upper layers become waterlogged.
Gravel: coarse particles. Consists of rock fragments,
Loam: about equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt, and humus. Rich in nutrients. Holds water
but does not become waterlogged.
Sand: sedimentary material coarser than sit. Water flows through too quickly for most crops.
Good for crops and plants requiring low amounts of water.
Silt: sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between the size of sand and clay.
Easily transported by water.
Topsoil is the most productive soil layer
Soil has varying amounts of organic matter, minerals, and nutrients
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 Natural processes can take more than 500 years to form 1 inch of topsoil
 Soil is formed from rocks and decaying plants and animals
An average soil sample is 45% minerals, 25%water, 25% air, and 5% organic matter
Organic Fertilizers
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-Three common forms: animal manure, green manure, and compost.
-Improves soil texture, adds organic nitrogen, and stimulates beneficial bacteria and fungi.
-Disadvantages: high cost to transport (growing crops is separated from raising animals); mechanization has replaced
many animals with machinery.
 -Improves water-holding capacity of soil.
 -Helps to prevent erosion.
Inorganic Fertilizers
 -Does not add humus to the soil, resulting in less ability to hold water and support living organisms (earthworms,
beneficial bacteria and fungi, etc.)
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-Lowers oxygen content of the
soil thereby keeping fertilizer
from being taken up efficiently.
 -Supplies only a limited number
of
nutrients (usually nitrogen and
phosphorous).
 -Requires large amounts of
energy to produce, transport, and
apply.
 -Releases nitrous oxide (N2O)- a greenhouse gas.
Desertification
 Definition: productive potential of arid or semiarid land falls by at least 10 percent or more due to human activity
and/or climate change.
 Symptoms: loss of native vegetation; increased wind erosion; salinization; drop in water table; reduced surface water
supply.
 Remediation: reduce overgrazing; reduce deforestation; reduce destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and mining.
Plant trees and grasses to hold soil.
Salinization
 Definition: water that is not absorbed into the soil and evaporates, which leaves behind dissolved salts in topsoil.
 Symptoms: stunted crop growth; lower yield; eventual destruction of plant life.
 Remediation: take land out of production for 2-5 years; install underground perforated drainage pipes; flush soil with
fresh water into separate lined evaporation ponds; plant halophytes (salt-loving plants) such as barley, cotton, sugar
beet, and/or semidwarf wheat.
Igneous rocks are formed either underground or above ground. Underground, they are formed when the melted rock, called
magma, deep within the Earth becomes trapped in small pockets. As these pockets of magma
cool slowly underground, the magma becomes igneous rocks.
 Igneous rocks are also formed when volcanoes erupt, causing the magma to rise above
the Earth's surface. When magma appears above the Earth, it is called lava. Igneous
rocks are formed as the lava cools above ground
Metamorphic rocks are formed by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high
temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above. They can be formed by tectonic
processes, such as continental collisions, which cause horizontal pressure, friction, and
distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion of hot molten rock
called magma from the Earth's interior.
Sedimentary rocks are formed as particles of sediment buildup. Pressure squeezes the
sediment into layered solids in a process known as lithification. Sedimentary rocks are laid
down in layers called beds or strata. New rock layers that are above the older rock layers is
stated in the principle of superposition.
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Sedimentary rocks contain fossils, the preserved remains of ancient plants and animals.
Differences between successive layers indicate changes to the environment that have
occurred over time. Sedimentary rocks can contain fossils because, unlike most
igneous and metamorphic rocks, they form at temperatures and pressures that do not
destroy fossil remains.
Nitrogen (N2) constitutes 78% of all gas in the atmosphere
 -Fundamental nutrient for living organisms
 -Deposits on Earth through nitrogen fixation and reactions involving lightning and subsequent precipitation
 -Returns to the atmosphere through combustion of biomass and dentrification
 -Twenty-one percent of all gases in the atmosphere is
oxygen (o2)
 -Produced through photosynthesis and utilized in cellular
respiration
Photosynthesis: 6CO2+12H2O->C6H12O6+6H2O
The Thermosphere begins about 90 km (56 miles) above the
earth's surface
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Temperatures increase
with altitude due to
absorption of highly
energetic solar radiation by
the small amount of
residual oxygen still
present
The upper region of this atmospheric layer is called the ionosphere where ultraviolet radiation causes ionization to
occur
Methane (CH4) constitutes much less than 1 percent of all gases in the atmosphere but is influential as a greenhouse gas.
 -Since 1750, methane gas has increased~150% due to use of fossil fuels, coal mining, flooding of rice fields, livestock
 -Humans contribute~400 million tons of CH4 per year compared to ~200 million tons produced through natural
processes.
 sun heats atmosphere unevenly
 air closest to surface is warmer and rises
 air at higher elevations is cooler and sinks
 this rising and falling sets up convection processes and is primary cause of
winds
Global air circulation is caused and affected by
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uneven heating of the earths surface
seasons
coriolis effect
amount of solar radiation reaching earth's surface over period of time
convection cells created by areas of warm ocean water that in turn are
caused by differences in water density, winds, and the earth's rotation
Coriolis Effect
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as air moves from high to low pressure in the northern hemisphere, it is deflected to the right by the coriolis force
(spiral clockwise out from high pressure areas)
in the southern hemisphere, air moving from high to low pressure is deflected to the left (spiral counterclockwise in
toward low pressure areas.
slowly blowing winds wil be deflected only a small amount, whereas stronger winds will be deflected more
winds blowing closer to the poles will be deflected more than winds at the same speed closer to the equator
the coriolis force is zero at the equator
Hadley Air Cell
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Circulation pattern that dominates the tropical atmosphere (between 30 degrees north and 30 degrees south)
characterized by:
o rising air motion near the equator
o poleward wind flow 10-15 km (6-9 miles) above surface
o descending air motion in the tropics
o equator-ward air flow near the surface
o trade winds occur in this region
The Hadley cell carries heat and moisture from the tropics to the northern and southern mid-latitudes
Having lost most of its water vapor to condensation and rain in the upward branch of the circulation, the descending
air is dry. Many of the world's deserts are located in these subtropical latitudes
The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere.
 -The troposphere contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and almost
all of its water vapor.
 -The average depth of the troposphere is deeper in the tropical regions (up to 20km
and shallower near the poles (about 7km)
 -The temp. of the troposphere decreases with height, while saturation vapor pressure
decreases with temp.
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-The pressure of the atmosphere is the maximum at the
surface and decreases with higher altitude
 -The temp. of the troposphere generally decreases as
altitude increases.
Stratosphere is situated between 10km and 50km altitude above
the surface at moderate latitudes.
 -The stratosphere is stratified in temp., with warmer layers
higher up and cooler layers farther down.
 At night, the land cools off quicker than the ocean due to diff. in their specific heat values, which forces the dying of
the daytime sea breeze.
 -If the land cools below that of the adjacent sea surface temp., the pressure over the water will be lower than that of the
land, setting up a land breeze.
Causes of El Nino (ENSO)
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rise in air pressure over Australia , the Indian ocean, and Indonesia
fall in air pressure over rest of the central and eastern pacific ocean
trade winds in the south pacific weaken or head east
warm air rises near peru, causing rain in deserts
warm water spreads from west pacific and indian ocean to east pacific, taking rain with it and causing rainfall in
normally dry areas and excessive drought in eastern areas
Ecuador and northern Peru: warm and very wet summers causing major flooding
northern Australia and southeast asia: drier conditions result in bush fire haze
north america: winter warmer than normal in upper midwest states, the NE, and canada. central and suth cali, NW
mexico , and and SW US are wetter and cooler than normal. summer is wetter in the intermountain region of US
pacific NW states: dry but foggy winters and warm sunny springs
US pacific Coast: increased waves cause coastal erosion
ATLANTIC COEAST: Decreased hurricane activity
south of 25N latitude
East Africa: long rains from march to may
South-central Africa: drier than normal from dec to feb
Causes of Upwelling
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Key factor is Coriolis effect
Wind driven currents tend to be driven to the right of
winds in the Northern Hemishphere and left of winds
Southern hemisphere
in N Hem, when winds blow either toward equator along eastern ocean boundary or toward poles along western ocean
boundary, surface waters driven away from coasts and
An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals, and microorganism (biotic factors) in an area
functioning together with all of the nonliving (abiotic) factors of the environment.
o organisms> species> populations> communities> ecosystems> biosphere
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Niche Structure- Number of ecological niches; how they resemble or differ from each other; includes species
interactions
 Physical Appearance- Relative size; stratification; distribution of populations and species
 Species Diversity- Number of different species
 Species Abundance- Number of individuals of each species.
Population Dispersal
 Clumped-some areas within the habitat are dense with organisms;
others contain few members
 Linear- individuals are in straight lines
 Random-little interaction between members of the population
leading to random spacing patterns
 Uniform - Fairly uniform spacing between individuals
Specialist Species
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Live in narrow niches and are sensitive to environmental changes.
More prone to extinction than generalists
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When environmental conditions are stable, specialist species have an advantage because there are few competitors
as each species occupies its own unique niche.
Example: Giant panda
Generalist Species
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Live in broad niches
Able to withstand a wide range of environmental conditions.
When habitats are subjected to rapid changes, the generalists fare better because they are more adaptable.
Examples: Cockroaches, mice, humans
Symbiosis
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Describes close and often long term interactions between different biological species
Symbiotic relationships include those associates in which one organism lives on another (ectosymbiosis, such as
mistletoe), or where one partner lives inside another ( endosumbiosis, such as
lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or zooxanthelles in corals)
Symbiotic relationships may be either obligate, that is, necessary to the survival of at
least one of the organisms involved, or facultative, where the relationship is
beneficial but not essential to survival of the organisms
Amensalism
 (- 0)- one species is harmed, the other is unaffected
 Chemical interaction is known as allelopathy. Examples: penicillin, black walnut
Commensalism
 (+ 0)- one species is benefited, the other is unaffected
 Transportation (phoresy)- Examples: remora on a shark, mites on dung beetles
 Housing (inquilinism)-Example: orchids growing on trees
 Using things created by other organisms (metabiosis)- Example: hermit crabs.
Competition
 (+,-) - the simultaneous demand by two or more organisms for limited environmental resources, such as nutrients,
living space, or light.
 Intraspecific (within) competition- Example: two trees of the same species growing close together will compete for
light, water, and nutrients in the soil.

Interspecific (between) competition-Example: cheetahs and lions hunting the same prey
o Driving force of evolution
Factors Contributing to Rise in Sea Levels (#82)
 Thermal expansion of water at higher
temperatures.
 -Melting of ice caps and glaciers due to global
warming.
 -Land buildup or erosion of mountains.
 -Plate tectonic effects
Dams and Reservoirs
 +Advantages:
 -Provide an inexpensive source of electricity
without using fossil fuels.
 -Provide a year-round supply of irrigation for
crops
 -Flooding is reduced
 -Provide resources for recreation
Colorado River Basin
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-Sedimentation
-Groundwater and oil extraction.
-Changes in ocean currents and tides.
-Distribution changes in the water cycle.


+Disadvantages
-Migration and spawning of some fish are
disrupted
-Croplands downstream are deprived of nutrient
rich soil
-Large losses of water through evaporation
-Flooded land displaces people

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Diversion of water from the Colorado River has led to water rights disputes between Arizona, California, and
Mexico. Dams on the Colorado River trap large quantities of silt (over 10 million metric tons per year) and reduce
nutrient levels in farmlands below the dam. As a result, more fertilizer is required. Farm irrigation has resulted in high
levels of sodium chloride in the alkaline soils to become incorporated in agricultural runoff. Millions of acres of oncevaluable farmland are now useless due to the salt buildup in soil, a process known as salinization
The Ogallala Aquifer underlies eight states from North Dakota to Texas. The Orgallala Aquifer used to hold more freshwater
than all freshwater lakes, streams, and rivers on Earth. Due to pumping of the groundwater for agriculture, domestic, and
industrial uses, many locations are experiencing water shortages

In 1949, China had no large reservoirs and only 40 small hydroelectric stations. By 1985, there were 80,000 reservoirs
and 70,000 hydroelectric stations. The Three Gorges Dam required relocation of 1.2 million people
Clean Water Act

Sets objectives for restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters.
Regulates discharge of pollutants and requires federal agencies to avoid adverse impacts from modification or
destruction of navigable streams and associated tributaries, wetlands, or other waters
Desert Organisms
 Most are small and have small surface areas to
reduce water loss
 Spend time in burrows
 Often nocturnal
 Aestivation
 Able to metabolize dry seeds

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Kangaroo rats
secrete concentrated
urine
Insects and reptiles
have think outer
scales
Edge Effect
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The effect of an abrupt transition between two different adjoining
ecological communities on the numbers and kinds of organisms in the marginal
habitat
Involves issues with boundaries between natural habitats; for example, the boundary
between forests and developed land.
Especially, pronounced in small habitat fragments where the edge effect may extend
throughout.
Example : In a clear cutting, sun and wind penetrate more, drying out the interior of the
forest near the clearing
Statutory Law- laws developed/passed by legislative bodies such as the federal and state gov'ts.
Administrative Law- laws that consist of administrative rules and regulations, executive orders, and enforcement decisions
related to implementation and interpretation of statutory laws.
Common Law- a body of unwritten rules and principles derived from thousands of past legal decisions along with commonly
accepted practices (norms) within a society.
 NGO's- Non-Governmental Organizations, such as labor unions and environmental organizations.
The Scientific Method – know it
Transpiration: water evaporates from plants, helping to
pull the water through the plant
Clearcutting v. Selective Cutting
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Carrying Capacity (k): how large a population it
can sustainably hold
Native v. invasive species
Epidemiology: the statistical study of disease in
human populations
Dissolved Oxygen
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Eutrophication: too much organic matter gets into the water and the
dissolved oxygen is
rapidly
used and other
organisms die
NEPA (National
Environmental
Protection Act 1970:
to consider
environmental effects of
major federal action
 Nees to make
US has
any
an environmental impact statement (EIS)
Clean Air Act 1970
Endangered Species
 No taking of
 No modification
Act 1973
any endangered organisms
of habitat
Clean Water Act (1977, 1987)
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA): Superfund Program
 Bad guys have to clean up stuff
 As a response to Love Canal
International
CITES – Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species 1975
Montreal Protocol 1987- against CFCs – good
work!
Kyoto Protocol 1987
 Aimed to lower greenhouse gases