Download American Political Culture The dominant aspects of political culture

American Political Culture

The dominant aspects of political culture in the U.S.
What is political culture?
1. Distinctive and patterned way of thinking about how political and economic life ought to
be carried out.
2. For example, stronger American belief in political than in economic equality
ELEMENTS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Liberty
Equality
Democracy
Civic duty
Individual responsibility
How do we know people share these beliefs? - before polls, beliefs inferred from books,
speeches, etc.
How do we explain behavior inconsistent with these beliefs - beliefs still important, cause
changes in behavior
Why has there been so much political conflict in U.S. history? - beliefs contradict one
another, are not consistently prioritized
Most consistent evidence of political culture - use of terms "Americanism," "un-American"

Beliefs that citizens hold about their government and leaders
Somewhat removed from the people. No Trust.
A. Evidence of increase of mistrust since mid-1960s
1. Jimmy Carter speech in 1979 on American malaise
2. Polls showed people believed ...
a. "Quite a few" crooks in government
b. Government run for a "few big interests"
c. "Lots" of tax money wasted
d. Government does right only "some of the time"
B. Causes
1. Watergate
2. Vietnam

Processes by which citizens learn about politics
FAMILY, RACE, RELIGION, EDUCATION, GENDER. SOCIAL CLASS, INTERNET, HISTORY,
RADIO, NEWS, FRIENDS, WORK, IDEOLOGIES, MONEY, LIFE ITSELF.
Public Opinion

Sources of our political attitudes
A. The role of family
1. Party identification of family absorbed, but more independent as child grows
2. Much continuity between generations
3. Declining ability to pass on identification
4. Younger voters exhibit less partisanship; more likely to be independent
5. Meaning of partisanship unclear; less influence on policy preferences
6. Clear political ideologies passed on in a few families
B. Religion
1. Religious traditions affect families
a. Catholic families somewhat more liberal
b. Protestant families more conservative
c. Jewish families decidedly more liberal
2. Two theories on differences
a. Social status of religious group
b. Content of the religious tradition
3. Christian Coalition - grassroots mobilization, Republican affiliation
C. The gender gap
1. Changing partisan affiliations
a. Women were likely to be Republicans in 1950's
b. Women were likely to be Democrats since late 1960's
c. Change due to shift in party policy positions (abortion, equal pay/equal work, etc.)
D. Schooling and information
1. College education has liberalizing effect
2. Effect extends beyond end of college
3. Cause of this liberalization?
a. Personal traits: temperament, family, intelligence
b. Exposure to information politics
c. Liberalism of professors
4. Effect growing as more go to college
5. Increasing conservatism since 1960's?
a. Yes (oppose legalizing marijuana and abortion) and ...
b. No (support school busing)

The significance of race, ethnicity, education, and gender in explaining political attitudes
Race and ethnicity - Blacks are generally far more liberal than whites, on issues ranging from busing and
housing discrimination to the death penalty, national defense, and national health insurance.
1 . Becoming more important even on nonracial matters
2. Blacks most consistently liberal group within Democratic Party; little cleavage among blacks
3. Hispanic and Asian Americans less liberal
(EDUCATION AND GENDER ABOVE)

The liberal and conservative positions on the economy, civil rights, and political conduct, etc.
Useful categories emerge from studies
a.
Economic policy:
Liberals: A market system in which government regulates the economy is best. Government must
protect citizens from the greed of big business. Unlike the private sector, the government is
motivated by public interest. Government regulation in all areas of the economy is needed to level
the playing field.
Conservatives: The free market system, competitive capitalism, and private enterprise create the
greatest opportunity and the highest standard of living for all. Free markets produce more economic
growth, more jobs and higher standards of living than those systems burdened by excessive
government regulation.
b. Civil rights: liberals prefer desegregation, strict enforcement of civil rights law
c. Public and political conduct: liberals tolerant of demonstrations, legalization of marijuana, etc.
d. Foreign Policy:
Liberals: Global warming, not terrorism, poses the greatest threat to the U.S., according to Democrats
in Congress.Terrorism is a result of arrogant U.S. foreign policy. Good diplomacy is the best way to
deal with terrorism. Relying on military force to defeat terrorism creates hatred that leads to more
terrorism. Captured terrorists should be handled by law enforcement and tried in civilian courts.
Conservatives: Terrorism poses one of the greatest threats to the U.S. The world toward which the
militant Islamists strive cannot peacefully co-exist with the Western world. In the last decade, militant
Islamists have repeatedly attacked Americans and American interests here and abroad. Terrorists must be
stopped and destroyed. The use of intelligence-gathering and military force are the best ways to defeat
terrorism around the world. Captured terrorists should be treated as enemy combatants and tried in
military courts.
http://www.studentnewsdaily.com/other/conservative-vs-liberal-beliefs/
WHAT ARE YOU?
1. Pure liberals: liberal on both economic and personal conduct issues
2. Pure conservatives: conservative on both economic and personal conduct issues
3. Libertarians: conservative on economic issues, liberal on personal conduct issues
4. Populists: liberal on economic issues, conservative on personal conduct issues

The different types of polling and problems with polls
A straw poll is a nonbinding vote taken to determine the prevailing mood concerning a particular
issue. A straw poll may be open or secret. Straw polls often are taken before measures are
proposed for a vote to determine if there is enough support for them to pass.
Telephone polls often are conducted during political campaigns or to determine public opinion on
issues. These polls are conducted by taking random samples of the population and conducing surveys by
telephone.
Another form of political polls is online polls. These polls are posted on websites, and
may be open to anyone who visits the website. NOT REPRESENTATIVE
Tracking polls gauge the opinions of a selected group of respondents on a single question over
time. The polls are reported over a set period, such as several days or a week, with the oldest results
dropped when new results are added. In this way a tracking poll can be a more accurate means of
measuring a trend in opinion.
Exit polls are taken immediately after a voter has cast her ballot. Exit poll Interviewers position
themselves as close to the polling place as they are allowed to be, and approach voters as they leave. The
poll subjects may be randomly chosen.
PROBLEMS: Refusal Rate, Timing of Poll
Political Participation

1
Different forms of participation and why people participate in politics
. Voting the commonest form of particpation, but 8 to 10 percent misreport it
2. Other forms of participation
Inactives - People who rarely vote, do not get involved in organizations, and do not even talk
much about politics. They account for about 22 percent of the population.
a.Running for office, campaigning, contacting government.
b. Voting specialists - People who vote but participate in little else politically. They tend not to have
much schooling or income, and to be substantially older than the average person.
c. Campaigners - People who not only vote but like to get involved in campaign activities as well. The are
better educated than the average voter, but what distinguishes them most is their interest in the conflicts of
politics, their clear party identification, and their willingness to take strong positions.
d. Communalists - people who tend to reserve their energies for community activities of a nonpartisan
kind. Their education and income are similar to those of campaigners.
e. Parochial participants - People who do not vote and stay out of election campaigns and civic
associations, but who are willing to contact local officials about specific, often personal, problems.
f. Complete activists - An individual, usually outside government, who actively promotes a political
party, philosophy, or issue he or she cares personally about.
WHY YOU ASK?
They have something to believe in! Fighting for what they think is right!

The factors that are associated with high or low political participation
1. Those with schooling, or political information, more likely to vote
2. Churchgoers vote more
3. Men and women vote same rate
4. Race
a. Black participation lower than that of whites overall
b. But controlling for socioeconomic status higher than whites
5. Level of trust in government?
--Studies show no correlation between distrust and not voting
6. Difficulty of registering?
--As turnout has declined, registration barriers have been lowered
7. Several small factors decrease turnout
a . More youths, blacks, and other minorities in population, pushing down percent registered
b. Decreasing effectiveness of parties in mobilizing voters
c. Remaining impediments to registration
d. Voting compulsory in other nations
e. Possible feeling that elections do not matter
8. Democrats, Republicans fight over solutions
a . No one really knows who would be helped by increased turnout
b. Nonvoters tend to be poor, minority, or uneducated
c. But an increasing percentage of college graduates are also not voting
d. Hard to be sure that turnout efforts produce gains for either party: Jesse Jackson in 1984 increased
registration of southern whites even more than southern blacks

Factors why political participation has declined over the past century and governmental and nongovernmental factors explaining why turnout stays low in the U.S.
It has declined because people think they are too busy, no time. Trust in government has decreased.
Weak Parties. Young people are too lazy.
Burden?
Felon, Residency, Citizenship Requirements, Location, Age, Absentee Ballots, Registration, ID
requirement, Time of Day – Institutional. Busy, Happy, Lack of Efficacy (Wont help), Peer Pressure,
Don’t like candidates, car broken—Non institutional.
Political Parties

The functions, organization, and development of political parties
Group of people organized primarily for the purpose of controlling government through winning
elections and holding public office. Nominating function, primaries. Search out people who think
would be good candidates. Inform public and stimulating debate, to let people know what party thinks
about something. “Seal of Approval” Vote for the person just because he is a Rep or Dem.
Governmental Function: When people lose jobs when there is a change in power. ELEMENTS OF A
PARTY: Voters, party leaders who handle party apparatus and aren’t in government, party activists,
party leaders in government.
Party as Organization: This desgination refers to party professionals and activisits, as well as the
infrastructure (national committee) through which they function. Part professional tend to be
pragmatic, focused on winning elections. Ideology and specific issues are less of a concern for them.
Party-in Government: Politicians who hold local, state, or federal office and are members of a party
make up this category. The President is the party leader.
Party-in-the electorate: Voters who identify with one party or the other and who usually support the
candidates of that party make up this category.

How parties serve as linkage institutions
Something that connects people to the government. Party connects people to government because you
can write to your congressman, if you dontlike something. Town Hall meeting, Interest Groups,
Parties, Media.

Explanations for why parties have been in decline since the New Deal
The decline of party strength and influence began in the 19th century, partly due to the growth of
the federal government under FDR whose 'New Deal' establishment served to undermine
traditional social functions once carried out by party machines, thus weakening party loyalty. In
the 1960's and 1970s new issues such as civil rights, feminism, environmentalism and consumer
rights arose to challenge traditional voting habits. These issues did not divide neatly along party
lines and more voters indulged in "ticket-splitting" (voting for different parties in different
elections).
1. Progressive push measures to curtail parties
a. Primary elections b. Nonpartisan elections at city and (sometimes) state level c. No partybusiness alliances-corrupting d. Strict voter registration requirements e. Civil service
reform f. Initiative and referendum

The structure of a major party; powerful and powerless party units
The major political parties are organized at the local (usually county), state, and national levels. Party
leaders and activists are involved in choosing people to run for office, managing and financing
campaigns, and developing positions and policies that appeal to party constituents. The national party
organizations play key roles in presidential elections.
Local party organization
Political parties operate at the local level in municipal and county elections (though many cities choose
officials — mayors and members of city council — through nonpartisan elections, in which candidates
effectively run as independents without party affiliation). In partisan elections, the party is involved in
identifying candidates, providing professional staff, and taking positions on issues of immediate concern
to voters. The party leadership recognizes that the interaction between party workers, candidates, and
voters is important.
State party organization
Political parties prepare for statewide elections. Party activists are named as electors in the Electoral
College if their party carries the state in a presidential election. Candidates for state office may be chosen
through a primary election, state convention, or caucus process. At a state caucus, party members select
their candidates. In many states, the executive officials — governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer, and
attorney general — are elected as individuals. Although the party's slate, its candidates for office, is listed
on the ballot, voters can vote for any candidate they want. In such states, it is not unusual for voters to
elect a Democratic governor and a Republican lieutenant governor or vice versa.
National party organization
At the national level, political parties run candidates for Congress and the presidency. Each party has its
own national committee made up of party leaders, elected officials, and the chairs of the state party
organizations. The chair of the national committee is chosen by the party's candidate for president. The
Democratic and Republican national committees do not run the campaigns of their respective presidential
candidates; they play a supporting role to the campaign organizations of the candidates themselves. In
both the Senate and the House, each party has its own congressional campaign committee, which raises
money for congressional elections.
The national convention
The national committee loosely runs the party between national conventions. As noted earlier, a
party's choices for president and vice president are nominated at the national convention. The
delegates to the convention are already committed to vote for particular candidates based on the
results of the state primary or caucus voting. While some delegates are appointed by the state
party organization, the overwhelming majority are selected through primaries and caucuses. A
party's nominee is often determined months before the convention, which makes the choice
official. The party works on and announces its platform at the national convention. The platform
is made up of planks that explain how the party stands on the issues facing the country. The
terms platform and plank date from the presidential election of 1832, when national party
conventions were first held. Developing the platform is often the most controversial part of the
convention. The Republicans, for example, have had to work out an acceptable compromise on
abortion between pro-choice and pro-life forces within the party.

Differences between the Republican and Democratic parties
McGoveern Graser Commission, Increased the influence of the college educated and upper middle class
in the Democratic Party. Everything else is almost completely different. Differences are discussed in the
Public Opinion section. In 1960s and 1970s, the Republicans began to convert their national party into a
well-financed, highly staffed organization devoted to finding and electing Republican candidates. The
Democrats began changing the rules governing how presidential candidates are nominated in ways that
profoundly altered the distribution of power within the party. Republicans become bureacurized and
Democrats became factionalized one. Democrats tried to copy them. RNC used the internet. DNC copied
them. Both ship their money to state organizations to finance television ads supporting their parties. RNC
takes polls.

The effects of having weak parties
Candidate Based Campaign Organization.. Gridlock—Fighting and things don’t get done.
Fragmentation0Hard to pass policies. Interest Groups Increase. Public is more influenctial. No more
influence over Public and Candidate.

Why third parties have trouble and the effect of third parties on elections and platforms of the
major parties
Minor parties are discouraged, by an election system (winner-take-all, plurality elections) that
makes voters reluctant to waste a vote on a minor party and by the ability of potential
minor parties to wield to wield influence within a major party by means of the primary
season. Hard to get on Debates, Ballot Access is difficult. Start Campaigns from the scratch.
Act as Splinter Parties. Theodore Roosevelt in the Progressive party split the Republican Vote.
Sometimes give good ideas.

The differences between activists and nonactivists
This cant be a serious question…

Which demographic groups tend to be members of which party
Blacks- Dems
Whites-Rep/Dem
(LOOK ABOVE)

The roles of minority groups within political parties.
They make all the difference! You have to have every type of group vote for you, because you
gotta win. Minority parties and minority voters that are optimally concentrated geographically, and are of
sufficient size to control the majority of votes in a requisite number of districts, can hope to achieve
representation that is more proportional. . The Voting Rights Act of 1965 and its amendments in
1982 have established that a redistricting plan that dilutes the voting strength of minority voters
by dividing the minority community among different districts may be invalid. We Are getting
more diverse!
Elections and Campaigns

The differences between the party-oriented campaigns of the 19th century and the candidateoriented ones of today
Party Oriented Campaigns were basically campaigns based mostly on the beliefs of the party and
what the party as a whole was going to do if elected. In these days, we focus a lot on the candidate.
How he looks on camera, how he does on debates, how well he knows his stuff.
 The election process from a candidate’s announcement through the actual election
Announcement to run
A. Primary and general campaigns
1 . What works in a general election may not work in a primary
a. Different voters, workers, media attention
b. Must mobilize activists with money and motivation to win nomination
2. Iowa caucuses
a . Held in February of presidential election year
b. Candidates must do well or be disadvantaged in media attention, contributor interest
c. Winners tend to be most liberal Democrat, most conservative Republican
3. The balancing act
a. Being conservative or liberal enough to get nominated
b. Move to center to get elected
c. Apparent contradiction means neither candidate is appealing
4. Even primary voters can be more extreme ideologically than average voters
a. McGovern in 1972
B. Television, debates, and direct mail
1. Paid advertising (spots)
a. Probably less effect on general than primary elections
b. Most voters rely on many sources for information
2. News broadcasts ("visuals")
a. Cost little
b. May have greater credibility with voters
c. Rely on having television camera crew around
d. May actually be less informative than spots
3. Debates
a. Usually an advantage only to the challenger
b. Reagan in 1980: reassured voters
c. 1988 primary debates with little impact
4. Risk of slips of the tongue on visuals and debates
a. Forces candidates to rely on stock speeches--campaign themes
b. Sell yourself as much or more than ideas
6. 1996, major networks with free time to major candidates
7. The computer
a. Makes possible direct-mail campaigns
b. Allows candidates to address specific voters via direct mail
c. Importance of mailing lists
d. Campaign Web Sites
8. The gap between running a campaign and running the government
a . Party leaders had to worry about reelection so campaigning and government linked
b. Today's consultants don't participate in governing

The importance of campaign funding; the sources of campaign funds under current laws; and the
success or failure of reform legislation in removing improper monetary influences from U.S.
elections
The sources of campaign money
1. Presidential primaries: part private, part public money
a. Federal matching funds
Candidates are not required to take matching funds in presidential primaries. In 1980, John Connally
sought the Republican nomination solely on the basis of private financing, which allowed him to avoid
the spending ceiling imposed on candidates receiving federal funds. He lost. Also note the activity of
Steve Forbes in 1996 and 2000 as well as Ross Perot in 1992 and 1996. In 2000 and 2004 George W.
Bush refused matching money as well.
b. Only match contributions of small donors: less than $250
c. Gives incentive to raise money from small donors
d. Government also gives lump-sum grants to parties to cover convention costs
2. Presidential general elections: all public money ($55 million per candidate)
3. Congressional elections: all private money
a. From individuals, political action committees, and parties
b. Most from individual small donors ($100-$200 a person)
c. $1,000 maximum for individual donors
d. Benefit performances by rock stars, etc.
e. $5,000 limit for PACs.
f. ...but most give only a few hundred dollars
g. Tremendous PAC advantage to incumbents: backing the winner
h. Challengers have to pay their own way
Campaign finance rules
Reform law
a . Set limit on individual donations ($1,000 per election)
b. Reaffirmed ban on corporate and union donations ...
c. . . . but allowed them to raise money through PACs
d. PACs in turn raised money from members or employees
e . Set limit on PAC donations ($5,000 per election per candidate)
f . Primary and general election counted separately
Law did not limit independent political advertising-no consultation with candidate or campaign
organization
a. Typically done by ideologically oriented PACs
b. Sometimes negative or attack advertising
Loopholes of law
a . Allows soft money-money for local party activities, e.g., getting out the vote
b. Allows money for general voter registration campaigns; Alan Cranston and Charles Keating
scandal
c. Allows bundling

Party realignment and dealignment; examples of such elections in the past; critical elections
1896, Republicans became dominant party, Economics, series of depressions. . 1932 New Deal Coalition,
Democrats became dominant party. Critical or realigning periods. A sharp, lasting shift occurs in the
popular coalition supporting one or both parties. 5 Main ones. 1800, Jeffersonian Republicans defeated
federalists. 1828, The Jacksonians Democrats came to power. 196- when the Whig party collapsed and
the Republicans under Lincoln came to power. 1896 when the Republicans defeated William Jennings
Bryan/ 1932 when the Democrats under Roosevelt came to office.
Dealignment is when people stop voting for their party. I don’t know examples

What the Democrats and Republicans each must do to put together a successful national coalition
to win an elections
Finding a wining coalition
1 . Ways of looking at various groups
a. How loyal, or percentage voting for party
b. How important, or number voting for party
2. Democratic coalition
a. Blacks most loyal
b. Jews slipping somewhat
c. Hispanics somewhat mixed
(1) Political power does not yet match numbers
(2) Turnout will increase as more become citizens
(3) See box in text regarding the Hispanic vote
d. Catholics, southerners, unionists departing the coalition lately
3. Republican coalition
a. Party of business and professional people
b. Very loyal, defecting only in 1964
c. Usually wins vote of poor due to retired, elderly voter

The relationship between elections and changes in public policy in the U.S.
Elections are competitive. .. determine what public policy is? Office-bloc ballot in place of the partycolumn ballot. Each party is a weak coalition of diverse elements that reflect the many divisions in
public opinion. Difficulty getting laws passed. Public Opinion and the political parties enter a phase
of consolidation and continuity between periods of rapid change. What.

Advantages of incumbents
PAC’s
Base of Support
Money
Experienced
People know them
Gerry Mandering
Retrospective
Credit-Claiming
Name Recognition
Media Attention
Bandwago
Constituent Service

How the U.S. electoral system has both hurt and helped minorities
Helped: Give them a more represented voice
Hurt: They need more of a voice?
The Media

How the electronic media affects the actions of public officials and candidates for national office
TV And reporters are constantly watching candidates.
They have to be careful.

The impact of the media on politics; how the media’s coverage influences elections and the public
agenda
A. Studies on media impact on elections
1. Generally inconclusive, because of citizens' . . .
a. Selective attention--According to Doris Graber, newspaper readers are highly selective. The average
person reads only about 20 percent of newspaper stories in full.
b. Mental tune-out
2. Products can be sold more easily than candidates
3. Newspaper endorsements of presidential candidates
a. Local newspapers often for Republicans
b. This endorsement cut successful Democrats' winning margins by five percentage points
B. Major effect: on how politics is conducted, candidates perceived, policy formulated
1. Conventions scheduled to accommodate television
2. Candidates win party nomination via media exposure
3. Issues established by media attention
a. Environment
b. Consumer issues
4. Issues that are important to citizens similar to those in media
a. TV influences political agenda
b. But people less likely to take media cues on matters that affect them personally
5. Newspaper readers see bigger contrasts between candidate than do TV viewers
6. TV news affects popularity of presidents; commentaries have short-run impact

The rules and laws that govern the media
FCC Regulations- Federal Communications Commission. Review every 7 years.
Libel- Something wrong said in a malicious way. Uou can sue
Equal Time Rule: Networks cant play favorityes
Telecommunications Act (1996)- Multiple Communications
Fairness Doctrin: Abolished!!!

The difference in media coverage of the president and members of Congress
A . Prominence of the president
1. Theodore Roosevelt: systematic cultivation of the press
2. Franklin Roosevelt: press secretary cultivated, managed, informed the press
3. Press secretary today: large staff, many functions focused on White House press corps
B. Coverage of Congress
1. Never equal to that of president; members resentful
2. House quite restrictive
a. No cameras on floor until 1978
b. Gavel-to-gavel coverage of proceedings since 1979 (C-SPAN)
3. Senate more open
a. Hearings since Kefauver (1950); TV coverage of sessions initiated 1986
b. Incubator for presidential contenders through committee hearings

Determining bias in press coverage
A. Are news stories slanted?
1. Most people believe media, especially television where they get most news
a. But percentage increasing among those who think media biased
b. Press itself thinks it is unbiased
2. Liberal bias of journalists, especially national media
Austin Ranney's analysis of the media concludes that cynicism pervades reporting, not liberalism. The
loss of public confidence in the government may be the consequence.
3. Various factors influence how stories are written
a. Deadlines
b. Audience attraction
c. Fairness, truth imposed by professional norms
d. Need sources with different views
4. Types of stories
a. Routine stories: public events, regularly covered
(1) Reported similarly by all media; opinions of journalists have least effect
(2) Can be missreported: Tet offensiv
b. Feature stories: public but not routinely covered so requires reporter initiative
(1) Selection involves perception of what is important
(2) Liberal and conservative papers do different stories
(3) Increasing in number; reflect views of press more than experts or public
c. Insider stories: investigative reporting or leaks
5. Studies on effects of journalistic opinions
a. Nuclear power: antinuclear slant
b. School busing: probusing
c. Media spin almost inevitable.
6. Insider stories raise questions of informant's motives in providing confidential information
a. From official background briefings of the past...
b. To critical inside stories of post-Watergate era

How the media serves as a linkage institution
CONNECTS WITH THE PEOPLE TO THE GOVERNMENT. Sets Political agenda by focusing on stuff
that candidates have to focus on.
Interest Groups

Why the characteristics of U.S. society and government encourage a multiplicity of interest groups
1. Many kinds of cleavages in the country
2. Constitution makes for many access points to government
3. Political parties are weak so interests work directly on government
Broad economic developments create new interest
a. Farmers produce cash crops
b. Mass-production industries begin
Government policy itself
a. Wars create veterans, who demand benefits
b. Encouraged formation of American Farm Bureau Federation, professional associations
3. Emergence of strong leaders, usually at certain times
4. Expanding role of government

The historical conditions under which interest groups are likely to form and the kinds of
organizations Americans are most likely to join
Institutional interests
Individuals or organizations representing other organizations
Membership interests
Americans join some groups more frequently than in other nations
a. Social, business, professional, veterans', charitable-same rate as elsewhere
b. Unions-less likely to join
c. Religious, political, civic groups-more likely to join
d. Greater sense of political efficacy, civic duty explain tendency to join civil groups
Incentives to join
1. Solidary incentives-pleasure, companionship (League of Women Voters (LWV), NAACP, Rotary,
Parent-Teacher Association, American Legion)
2. Material incentives-money, things, services (farm organizations, AARP)
3. Purposive incentives-goal /purpose of the organization itself
a. Though group also benefits nonmembers, join because: Passionate about goal; Strong sense of civic
duty; Cost of joining minimal
b. Ideological interest groups-appeal of controversial principles
c. Public interest groups-purpose principally benefits nonmembers
d. Engage in research and bring lawsuits, with liberal or conservative orientation
e. Publicity important because purpose groups are influenced by mood of the time

The methods that interest groups use to formulate and carry out their political objectives
A. Supplying credible information
1. Single most important tactic
2. Detailed, current information at a premium
3. Most effective on narrow, technical issues-will see link to client politics
4. Officials also need cues regarding what values are at stake
5. Rating systems
B . Public support
1. Insider strategy previously most common-face-to-face contact between lobbyist and member or Hill
staff
2. Increasing use of outsider strategy-grassroots mobilization of the issue public
3. Politicians dislike controversy, so work with those they agree with
4. Lobbyists' key targets: the undecided legislator or bureaucrat
5. Some groups attack their likely allies to embarrass them
6. Legislators sometimes buck public opinion, unless issue important
7. Some groups try for grassroots support
a. Saccharin issue
b. Dirty Dozen environmental polluters - 31 legislators with "Bad voting records" on the enviornment.
Noted by the Interest Group, Enviornmental Action, only 7 survived in office.
C. Money and PACs
1. According to text, money is least effective way to influence politicians
2. Campaign finance reform law of 1973 had two effects
a. Restricted amount interests can give to candidates
b. Made it legal for corporations and unions to create PACs
3. Rapid growth in PACs has not led to vote buying
a. More money is available on all sides
b. Members of Congress take money but still can decide how to vote
4. Almost any organization can create a PAC
a. Over half of PACs sponsored by corporations, one-tenth unions, and remainder varied
b. Recent increase in ideological PACs; one-third liberal, two-thirds conservative
5. Ideological PACs raise more but spend less due to cost of raising money
6. In 1992 and 1994, unions and business/professional organizations gave the most
7. Incumbents get most PAC money
a. Labor PACs almost exclusively give to Democrats
b. Business PACs split money between Democrats and Republicans
c. Democrats get most PAC money
8. PAC contributions small
9. Text states that there is no systematic evidence PAC money influences votes in Congress
a . Most members vote their ideology and with their constituents
b. When issue of little concern to voters and ideology with little guidance, slight correlation but may be
misleading
c. PAC money may influence in other ways, like access or committee actions
d. PAC money most likely to influence client politics
D. The revolving door
1. Promise of future jobs to officials
2. Few conspicuous examples of abuse

How interest groups use lobbying techniques to gain public support; how they use the courts to
advance their agendas
Many lobbyists have served in government themselves. This means they have worked, in some cases
for years, with the very people they are now lobbying; this experience gives them invaluable insights
into how things are accomplished in Washington.
Grass-Roots Campaign: An interest group can influence policy by marshalling its constituents and
appealing to the public for support. It may urge its members to write to their representative and
senator or even call them on the eve of an important vote. The NRA is known for its effective use of
this tactic.
PACS: Political action committees (PACs) are groups that raise and distribute money to candidates.
They may be affiliated with an existing interest group, such as a labor union or trade association, but
they can be independent. When changes in campaign financing laws in 1971 limited the amount of
money an individual could contribute, PACs became a major force in American politics.
Litigation: When Congress and the executive branch are unresponsive, interest groups can turn to the
courts for remedy. The NAACP, for example, played a major role in the landmark civil rights cases of
the 1950s and 1960s. Interest groups may be a plaintiff in a lawsuit, provide the attorneys or
underwrite the costs of the legal team, or submit an amicus curiae brief in support of one side or
another.

The laws regulating conflict of interest and the revolving door in government employment
Lobbyists are required to register with the clerk of the House and the secretary of the Senate and
indicate what group they are representing, the amount of their salary or compensation, and what types
of expenses are reimbursed to them. They also have to file quarterly financial statements. These
controls, which admittedly have not been effective in limiting abuse, date from the 1946 Federal
Regulation of Lobbying Act. In addition, lobbyists who represent foreign governments or
corporations must register with the Justice Department as agents of those countries. Congress has also
attempted to slow down the so-called "revolving door" by which an official begins to lobby his or her
colleagues immediately after leaving a government position. Under the 1978 Ethics in Government
Act, senior executive branch officials cannot lobby federal agencies on a matter that fell within their
scope of responsibility for two years after leaving government service. In addition, they are prohibited
from lobbying anyone in their former agency 1) on any issue for one year and 2) forever on matters
that they were involved in.

The impact of PACs on the political process
MAD MONEY

Regulation of interest groups, lobbyists, and PACs
A. Protection by First Amendment
1. 1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act accomplished little in requiring registration
a. Supreme Court restricted application to direct contact
b. Grassroots activity not restricted
c. No staff to enforce law
2. 1995 act provided a broader definition of lobbying
a. Requires reports twice a year, including client names, expenditures, issues
b. Still exempted grassroots mobilization
c. No enforcement agency established, but Justice Department may take action
d. Tax-exempt, nonprofit organizations cannot receive federal grants if they lobby
B. Other significant restraints
1. Tax code; nonprofits lose tax-exempt status
2. Campaign-finance laws limit PAC donations

How interest groups have served as linkage institutions
A structure that connects the people to the government. Special Interests = People = Government

Pluralist, elitist, hyperpluralist, and iron triangle theories of government
One of the criticisms of lobbyists is that they have too direct a role, based on their relationships with
government officials, in how laws are written and implemented. The term iron triangle describes the ties
between congressional committees, administrative agencies whose funding is set by the committees, and
the lobbyists who work closely with both.
The Constitution

The concept of “higher law’ by which the colonists felt they were entitled to certain
“natural rights”
Belief in a higher law of natural rights
a. Life
b. Liberty
c. Property (Jefferson notwithstanding)
A war of ideology, not economics

The shortcomings and accomplishments of government under the Article of Confederation
Congress did not have the direct power to tax or to regulate interstate and foreign trade. It could only
ask the states for money with no means to compel payment, and the states had the right to impose
their own duties on imports, which caused havoc with commerce. Congress had no authority to raise
an army on its own and had to requisition troops from the states. All major policy issues — war and
peace, treaties, the appropriation of funds — required the approval of nine states. The Articles
reflected the nation's concern about executive power; however, the lack of an executive meant there
was no effective leadership. A unanimous vote of the states, acting through their legislatures, was
necessary to amend the Articles.
Accomplishments: Post Office, Northwest ordinance
 Why the framers decided to write a new constitution
The need for a stronger national government was aired by the representatives of five states, including
Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, at the Annapolis Convention (September 1786). The inability
of Congress to deal with Shay's Rebellion (winter of 1786–1787), a revolt of debtor farmers in western
Massachusetts, made the shortcomings of the Articles clear. In February 1787, Congress agreed to hold
another meeting "for the sole and express purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation."

The Virginia and New Jersey plans and how they led to the “Great Compromise”
A. The Virginia Plan
1. Strong national government organized into three branches
2. Two houses in legislature based on population
3. Executive chosen by legislature
4. Council of revision (executive and some judiciary branch members) with veto power
5. Two key features of the plan
a. National legislature with supreme powers
b. One legislative house elected directly by the people
B . The New Jersey Plan
1. Sought to amend rather than replace Articles
2. One house legislature with one vote per state (equal representation)
3. Protected small states' interests while enhancing power of national government
C. The Great Compromise (or Connecticut Compromise)
1. House of Representatives based on population and directly elected by people
2. Senate of two members per state and elected by state legislatures
3. Reconciled interests of large and small states

Why separation of powers and federalism became key parts of the Constitution
Became Key cause That’s what worked
A. Founders did not intend to create direct democracy
1. Physical impossibility in a vast country
2. Mistrust of popular passions
3. Intent instead to create a republic, a government with system of representation
B . Popular rule only one element of new government
1. State legislators to elect senators (example of federalism)
2. Electors to choose president
3. Two kinds of majorities: voters (House) and states (Senate)
4. judicial review another limitation, not necessarily intended by Founders
5. Amendment process--2 part process
C. Key principles
1. Separation of powers
2. Federalism
D. Government and human nature
1 . Aristotelian view: government should improve human nature by cultivating virtue
2. Madisonian view: cultivation of virtue would require a government too strong, too dangerous; selfinterest should be freely pursued within limits
3. Separation of powers enables each branch to check others
4. Federalism enables one level of government to act as a check on the other

The compromises made about slavery in the Constitution
A. Slavery virtually unmentioned
B. Apparent hypocrisy of declaration signers
C. Necessity for compromise (3/5th) or no ratification
1. House of Representatives apportionment
a. 60% of slaves counted for representation
2. Congress could not prohibit slave trade before 1808
3. Fugitive slave clause--escaped slaves to be returned to masters

Criticisms that the Antifederalists had of the Constitution
No Bill of Rights
Fed gov had too much power
Infringe on Liberties
Elites will dominate gov
Those in office will become corrupted
Worry about slavery, owning slaves
Necessary and Proper clause
Supreme Court was unaccountable

The contents of the Constitution
Article I
The longest article in the Constitution vests legislative power in the Senate and the House of
Representatives. It describes the organization of Congress and lists its specific powers, known
as enumerated or delegated powers. Through the necessary and proper clause (also called
the elastic clause), Congress can make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers. Article I
also lists the powers denied to Congress and the states.
Article II
This article deals with the executive branch and describes the election of the president (and vice
president), the qualifications for holding the office, and the procedures if a president can no
longer serve. The powers of the president include serving as commander in chief of the army and
navy, making treaties, and, with the "advice and consent of the Senate," appointing ambassadors,
officials, and Supreme Court justices. The president is required to periodically report to Congress
on the state of the union, can propose legislation, and can call Congress into special session.
Article III
This article established the Supreme Court and authorizes Congress to establish lower federal
courts. The types of cases the courts have jurisdiction over are given, and a provision is made for
the right to trial by jury. While not specifically stated, the power of the courts to declare a law
unconstitutional is implied.
Article IV
The full faith and credit clause requires that the legislative and judicial actions of one state be
honored by the other states. Additionally, a citizen of any state has the same privileges as citizens
of all the other states. Article IV also provides for adding new states to the union, guarantees
each state a republican form of government, and ensures protection against invasion or domestic
violence.
Article V
The process for amending the Constitution is described. The states are responsible for ratifying
amendments.
Article VI
The Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties entered into by the United States are
the supreme law of the land. This is known as the supremacy clause.
Article VII
Approval by conventions of nine of the states was required to ratify the Constitution.

Checks and balances among the three branches of government; which powers each branch has
The government's functions are divided among three branches: the legislative branch that makes the
laws (Congress), the executive branch that carries out the laws (president), and the judicial branch
that interprets the laws (courts). This division is known as the separation of powers. In addition,
under the system of checks and balances, the powers of one branch of government are limited by the
powers given to another branch. Congress makes laws, but the president can veto legislation.
Congress can override a president's veto with a two-thirds vote of both houses (a check on a check).
While the president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Senate can reject an appointee through
its power to give "advice and consent."

The content of each Amendment and why it was passed
Congress proposed 12 amendments in September 1789; three-fourths of the states approved ten
of them in December 1791, creating the Bill of Rights. The following list summarizes the Bill of
Rights:

Prohibits the establishment of a state religion and protects freedom of the press and
speech and the rights to assemble and petition the government (Amendment I)

Guarantees the right to keep and bear arms in the context of a state militia (Amendment
II)

Prohibits the stationing of troops in homes without consent (Amendment III)

Protects against unreasonable searches and seizures and requires probable cause for
search warrants (Amendment IV)

Establishes a grand jury to bring indictments in capital or serious cases, protects
against double jeopardy (a person cannot be tried twice for the same crime) and selfincrimination (individuals cannot be forced to testify against themselves), and
guarantees due process and eminent domain (compensation must be paid for private
property taken for public use) (Amendment V)

Guarantees the right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury in criminal cases, to be
informed about charges, and to have representation by counsel (Amendment VI)

Provides for trial by jury in most civil cases (Amendment VII)

Prohibits excessive bail or fines and cruel and unusual punishments (Amendment VIII)

Does not deny people any rights not specifically mentioned in the Constitution
(Amendment IX)

Gives to the states or the people powers not granted to Congress or denied to the states
(Amendment X)

How the Constitution limited democracy
I don’t know?

Ways of amending the Constitution
Two way to PROPSE and two ways to AMNED. To propose: Two thirds of both houses of Congress cote
to propose an amendment OR two thirds of the state legislature ask Congress to call a national convention
to propose amendments.
TO RATIFY: Three fourths of the state legislature approve it, OR ratifying conventions in three-fourths
of the states approve it.

Major arguments in the Federalist Papers, particularly #10 and #51
Ambition will lead to abuse of government. Government is necessary because men are not perfect. There
is two things you need for making a government. First you must give the government the power to control
the governed. Second is that the government must be able to control itself. Afraid one group would take
over.
Federalism

The difference between federal and centralized systems of government
Federalism is a political system In which power is divided among the national government
and other governmental units, such as states, counties, and municipalitites in the U.S. It is the
middle ground between a unitary system, in which all power is derived from the central
government, and a confederal system, where the states are effectively soverign and determine
what authority the central government has. A.O.C were confederal.

The ways in which national and state powers have been interpreted by the courts and how this has
changed over the years
idk

The history of federalism and different types of federalism
Dual Federalism
Cooperative Federalism
Creative Federalism
New Federalism

How the interpretation of the elastic clause has influenced the use of federal power
Elastic language in Article 1: necessary and proper clause
1. Precise definitions of powers politically impossible due to competing interests, e.g., commerce
2. Hamilton's view: national supremacy since Constitution supreme law of land
3. Jefferson's view: states' rights with the people as ultimate sovereign
4. Allows for adaptation to changing times and conditions

Why federal grants-in-aid to the states have been politically popular and the pitfalls of such grantsin-aid.

The different types of grants
A categorical grant earmarks funds for a specific purpose. The two types of categorical grants are
project and formula grants. A project grant is awarded on the basis of competitive applications; money
from the National Institutes of Health or the National Endowment for the Humanities is awarded in this
manner. While many project grants go to individuals, formula grants go to states and municipalities that
meet the requirements described in the legislation. Depending on what the grant is for, factors such as the
age, education, and income level of the population; the number of miles of highway; or the
unemployment rate might be relevant to qualifying for aid.
A block grant is given for more general purposes than categorical grants — say, mental health,
community services, mass transit, or job training

The advantages and disadvantages of federalism
Advantages:
1. Federalism creates multiple layer of government, increases the possibility of political
participation, and provides greater access to the political processOppurtunity to vote in state and national officials. More involved in grass roots.
2. Federalism promotes innovation in handling complex political questions
State and local govs are the laboratories of change.
3. the fact that there are noth state and local centers of power gives regional interest groups a
strong political voice on the national scene
4. Federalism encourages diversity on a broad range of policy questions
States are free to develop their own positions on such questions like affirmative action, assisted suicide,
and the death penalty.
Disadvantage:
1. Federalism leads to the fragmentation of U.S politics
Three levels of government makes things too complicated. Voters become apathetic. Too many
elections.
2. There is a basic inequity in the federal system.
Some states wealthier than others which creates a disparity in the level of public services that each
provides.
3. Strong state and local constituencies can obstruct and delay the implementation of national
policy.
The desegregation of public school did not happen with all deliberate speed because of strong
opposition in communities.

The effect of devolution on relationships between the national and state governments
Devolution aimed to pass on to the states many federal functions. Devolution is the statutory
granting of powers from the central government of a sovereign state to government at a
subnational level, such as a regional, local, or state level. It differs from federalism in that the
powers devolved may be temporary and ultimately reside in central government, thus the state
remains, de jure, unitary. WELFARE.
AFDC became a block grant program. To transfer income to families and individuals.
What's driving devolution?
1. House Republican did not trust federal government, believed states were more responsive and less
wasteful; governors agreed
2. Devolution undertaken to make major cuts in entitlement spending
3. Supported by public opinion-though strength of support uncertain
 Concurrent, enumerated, reserved, implied, and denied powers in the Constitution
Concurrent: Shared with States and Fed Gov
Enumerated: Just for Fed Gov
Reserved: For the States
Implied: (Elastic Clause) What fed gov can do implicated of Constitution
Denied Powers: Things that The Constitution prohibits the Federal Government from doing.
For instance, interfering with the free expression of religion or the right of people to
petition the government.