Download Review for semester 1 final10/11 Chapter 2 Chemical Context of Life

Review for semester 1 final10/11
Chapter 2
Chemical Context of Life
1. Describe the structure of an atom using the terms: proton, neutron, electron, atomic number, atomic mass, isotopes, and energy levels.
Be able to:
Calculate atomic mass, atomic number, and atomic charge when given the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Relate the chemical behavior of an atom to its number of valence electrons.
Explain the uses of radioactive tracers.
2. Explain the different types of bonds between atoms. Give an example of each. Then rank them from strongest to weakest.
a.
b.
c.
d.
covalent (polar versus nonpolar)
ionic
hydrogen
Van der Waals interactions
Chapter 3
Water and the Fitness of the Environment
1. Water has exceptional properties that explain its unique role both inside and outside of living organisms. Describe the structure and behavior of water molecules
which allow it to support life.
Define and explain:
Its polar structure
Ability to form H-bonds
Cohesive properties
Adhesive properties
Its high specific heat and high heat of vaporization which allow it to moderate temperatures.
Evaporative cooling
The ability of ice to float
2. Water is a versatile solvent
a.
Explain why ionic and polar compounds are water-soluble.
b.
Define and give examples of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances.
3. a. Be very specific in defining what the pH scale is in terms of hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
b. How do buffers minimize changes in pH? Give an example.
Chapter 4
Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life
1. Explain the role of carbon in the molecular diversity of life. Include its structure, bonding patterns, and role in a variety of hydrocarbon structures.
2. All of the following functional groups increase the solubility of organic compounds in water. First, give its molecular structure. Then, name a sample compound of which it forms a portion.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
hydroxyl
carbonyl (in aldehydes vs. ketones)
carboxyl
amino
sulfhydryl
phosphate
Chapter 5
The Structure and Function of Macromolecules
1. Contrast condensation (dehydration) with hydrolysis reactions. Give an example of each.
2. Name the monomers that compose each of the following: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
3. Distinguish between and give examples of:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides
glucose and sucrose
starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
fatty acid and glycerol
saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
fat and phospholipid
polysaccharide and polypeptide
DNA and RNA
purine and pyrimidine
nucleoside, nucleotide, and nucleic acid
4. Describe the structure, characteristics, and functions of carbohydrates.
5. Describe the structure, characteristics, and functions of lipids.
6. Describe the structure of a basic amino acid. In a diagram, circle the carboxyl and the amino groups. Then, show a condensation reaction between two amino acids and circle the peptide bond that forms between them.
7. Describe the four structural levels in the conformation of a protein.
8. What does denaturation mean? What causes it? What is the result of it?
9. Describe at least four different types of proteins, explain their functions, and name
examples.
10. Describe the structure, characteristics, and functions of nucleic acids.
Chapter 41
Animal Nutrition
1.
Complete a diagram concerning animal homeostasis and blood sugar regulation.
2.
How do hormones regulate appetite in humans?
3.
Contrast the terms undernourished, overnourished and malnourished?
4.
What are essential amino acids and essential fatty acids?
5.
Contrast vitamins and minerals.
6.
Define the following terms:
a.
Ingestion
b.
Digestion
c.
Enzymatic hydrolysis
d.
Absorption
e.
Elimination
7.
Contrast intracellular and extracellular digestion.
8.
What are the three cell types of the gastric glands and what does each of them secrete?
9.
Why is it an advantage that pepsin is secreted in its inactive form?
10.
Describe the first part of the small intestine – what activity is occurring here?
11.
What is bile – is it’s action mechanical or chemical digestion?
Chapter 44
Regulating the internal environment
1.
How do birds deal with excess sodium that drink seawater?
2.
What are transport epithelium?
3.
What are the three forms that animals use to dispose of nitrogenous waste?
4.
Use a diagram below to label and define filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion – be very clear on their meanings.
5.
Describe the blood that is flowing in the following vessels in terms of “where it came from”, “where it is going” or what it is surrounding?
a.
b.
c.
d.
6.
Afferent arteriole
Efferent arteriole
Peritubular capillaries
Vasa recta
State the activities at the following locations:
a.
Proximal tubule
b.
Descending loop of Henle
c.
Ascending loop of Henle
d.
Collecting duct
Chapter 16
DNA
1.
Why does adenine always pair with thymine and guanine with cytosine in DNA?
2.
What is meant by the term that DNA replication is semiconservative?
3.
How is bacterial DNA replication accomplished?
4.
What are DNA polymerases?
5.
In your own words, what is meant by the term – DNA is antiparallel in arrangement”?
6.
Define the following terms:
a.
Leading strand
b.
Lagging strand
c.
Okazaki fragments
d.
DNA ligase
e.
Primer
Chapter 17
DNA to Protein
1.
Contrast termination of transcription for prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms.
2.
Why is important that the promoter be upstream of the transcription unit?
3.
Why is RNA processing necessary?
4.
What does adding a 5’ cap and poly A tail mean and why is it important?
5.
6.
Define the following terms:
a.
RNA splicing
b.
Introns
c.
Exon
d.
Spliceosome
e.
snRNP’s
f.
ribozymes
g.
UTR
h.
Alternative RNA splicing
Use a diagram below to explain transcription: Include and Define all terms that apply
7.
Detail the steps of initiation, elongation, and termination of translation.
Chapter 6
A Tour of the Cell
1. The cell is the unit of structure and function of all organisms. Name the four structures found in all cells.
2. a. Describe the differences that separate prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells.
b. Give examples of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
3. Explain the importance of cells being microscopic in size.
4. Distinguish between the following pairs of structures in BOTH their structure AND function:
a.
c.
d.
e.
cell membrane and cell wall
nucleus and nucleolus
rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
lysosomes and peroxisomes
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
food vacuole, contractile vacuole, and central vacuole
chloroplasts and mitochondria
mitochontrial matrix and cristae
chloroplast thylakoids (grana) and stroma
cilia and flagella
basal body and centriole
5. Explain the functions of each of the following: ribosomes, endoplasmic reticula, and Golgi complexes. How do they interact in the synthesis and delivery of new
membrane material and in the export of proteins from the cell?
6. What are the functions of the cytoskeleton? Describe the similarities and differences in structure AND function between microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.
7. Contrast the structures found in animal cells with those found in plant cells.
8. Neighboring cells are often in direct physical contact with each other. Thus, they can adhere, interact, and communicate with each other. These places of contact are called intercellular junctions. Explain and contrast
these junctions between plant and animal cells.
Chapter 7
Membrane Structure and Function
1. Describe the basic structure of cell membranes. Distinguish between the functions performed by the lipid, protein, and carbohydrate components of membranes. Explain the fluid nature of membranes.
2. Explain what causes cell membranes to be selectively permeable.
3. a. Explain the similarities and differences between diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion. Give examples of each.
b. How is active transport different from passive transport? Give an example of active transport.
4. Contrast what happens to cells placed in isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions.
5. a. Contrast exocytosis with endocytosis. Give an example of each.
b. Contrast phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis. Give examples of each.
6.Explain and give examples of proton pumps in plant cell membranes.
7. Relate water movement across plant cell membranes to water potential, solute (or
osmotic) potential, and pressure potential.
a.
Under what environmental conditions would a plant cell become
Turgid?
Flaccid?
Plasmolyzed?
b.
Explain the role of aquaporins in water transport.
Chapter 8
Metabolism
1. Distinguish between catabolic and anabolic pathways. Explain the role of energy in each of these pathways.
2. a. Describe the structure of ATP.
b. How does ATP perform work?
3. a. Distinguish between a catalyst and an enzyme.
b. Explain how enzymes speed up chemical reactions.
c. Define: substrate, active site, induced fit, cofactors, and coenzymes.
d. How does the specificity of an enzyme depend on its structure?
e. How is the activity of an enzyme affected by:
Substrate concentration?
Competitive versus noncompetitive inhibitors?
Temperature?
pH?
4. Name the bonds that are disrupted when a protein is denatured. Refer to the four
structural levels in the conformation of a protein.
Chapter 9
Cellular Respiration
1. Explain what is meant by oxidation and reduction. How are the two reactions coupled together? When a substance is reduced, is energy stored or released from it? What about when a substance is oxidized?
2. Write the equation for cellular respiration. Name those substances that are oxidized
and those that are reduced. Where does the energy come from to synthesize ATP?
Name the final electron acceptor.
3. Describe the basic chemical processes of glycolysis. What molecules are required and and what molecules are produced by the end of the chemical pathway? How many molecules of NADH and of ATP are produced
per molecule of glucose? Where in the cell does glycolysis occur?
4. Summarize the citric acid (Krebs) cycle. What molecules enter the cycle and what
molecules are produced by the end of the cycle? How many molecules of ATP,
FADH2, NADH, and CO2 are produced per molecule of glucose? Where in the cell
does the citric acid cycle occur?
5. Describe the critical role of NAD+ and FAD in the glycolytic and citric acid pathways.
6. Explain the importance of chemiosmosis. What is the maximum number of ATP generated per NADH and per FADH2 during chemiosmosis? Where does
chemiosmosis occur within a mitochondrion? Relate chemiosmosis to the electron transport chain. Where is the electron transport chain within a mitochondrion?
7. Contrast the number of ATP generated per glucose during oxidative phosphorylation
with the number generated during substrate-level phosphorylation.
8. How do cells generate ATP in the absence of oxygen? Describe two different
fermentation pathways.
9. Compare the number of ATP produced from the metabolism of one glucose molecule under aerobic conditions with the number produced under anaerobic conditions.
Which is more energy efficient?
10. Explain how each of the organic molecules of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates enter the reactions of cellular respiration.
Chapter 10
Photosynthesis
1. Distinguish between grana, thylakoids, and stroma in their structure and function.
2. Write the equation for photosynthesis. Name those molecules that are oxidized and those that are reduced. What molecules are split to release oxygen gas? What is
photophosphorylation? What is carbon fixation?
3. Contrast the major events that occur during the light reactions with those that occur during the Calvin cycle.
4. Explain the difference between absorption and action spectra. What conclusions can be drawn from each?
5. The light-dependent reactions:
a. What forms the reaction center in a photosystem?
b. Contrast photosystem I with photosystem II.
c. Contrast cyclic and noncyclic electron flow.
6. Contrast the chemiosmotic mechanism for ATP formation in the mitochondrion to that
in a chloroplast.
7. How is the Calvin cycle dependent on the light reactions? Name the enzyme that “fixes” CO2? What substances are supplied to the light reactions from the Calvin
cycle?
8. What is photorespiration? When does it occur? How is it a disadvantage to plants?
9. Contrast C3 and C4 plants. Name examples of each and describe the environments in which they normally live. Contrast the internal anatomy of their leaves. Explain the role of PEP carboxylase in C4 plants.
10. How are CAM plants adapted for surviving in hot, dry environments? Name some CAM plants. Contrast C4 with CAM photosynthesis.
11. Compare aerobic respiration and photosynthesis in eukaryotic cells. Specify reactants and products, electron-carrier molecules, substances that are oxidized
or reduced, organelles involved, etc.
Chapter 12
Cell Cycle
1.
Compare and contrast the role of cell division in unicellular and multicellular organisms.
2.
Define the following terms:
a.
Genome
b. Chromosomes
c.
Somatic cells
d. Gametes
e.
Chromatin
f.
Sister chromatids
g. Centromere
h. Mitosis
i.
Cytokinesis
j.
Meiosis
3.
List the activities of the cell cycle:
a.
Mitotic phase
b. Interphase
c.
G1 phase
d. G2 phase
e.
S phase
4.
Define the following terms:
a.
Mitotic spindle
b. Centrosome
c.
Microtubule organizing center
d. Aster
e.
Kinetochore
5.
Draw and label your phases of the cell cycle below.
6.
Contrast cytokinesis in plant and animal cells.
7.
Define binary fission and draw and label a diagram below:
8.
Discuss the hypothetical evolution of mitosis.
9.
What is the cell cycle control system and how do checkpoints play into this?
10.
What is a cyclin and what does it activate?
11.
What are Cdk’s?
12.
What does MPF stand for and what does it promote?
13.
What is a growth factor?
14.
What is density-dependent inhibition?
15.
What is anchorage dependence?
16.
Define the following terms:
a.
Transformation
b. Benign tumor
c.
Malignant tumor