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Civilizations of the Century th 15 Comparing China and Europe The Little Ice Age ► About 1300 CE, global climatic change caused temperatures to decline significantly throughout the world. ► For more than 500 hundred years, the earth experienced a “little ice age,” causing shorter growing seasons and decreased agricultural production which in many places led to famine and even starvation. The Little Ice Age ► In some northern lands, agriculture ceased to be a possibility altogether. ► The Hunters in the Snow by Pieter Brueghel (1565) The Black Plague ► As people around the world tried to cope with the cooling climate, in the eastern hemisphere there arose another new challenge to human survival: devastating epidemic disease. ► Bubonic plague bacteria infects rodents like rats, prairie dogs, and squirrels, and fleas transmit the pathogen from one rodent to another. The Black Plague ► If rodent populations decline, fleas seek other hosts including humans. ► In the early 14th Century, Mongol military campaigns helped spread the plague from the Yunnan region of southwestern China to China’s interior: an epidemic in 1331 reportedly killed 90% of the population in Hebei province, near modern Beijing. The Black Plague ► Plague victims developed inflamed lymph nodes, usually in the neck, armpits, and groin, and died within a few days. ► Internal hemorrhaging often caused the inflammations (called buboes) to turn black. The Black Plague ► During the 1340s Mongols, merchants, and travelers spread the disease along the trade routes to points west of China. ► During the 1350s epidemics broke out in widely scattered regions of China, and contemporaries claim 2/3 of the population in afflicted areas perished. ► The disease thrived in the oases and trading cities of central Asia, where domestic animals and rodents provided abundant breeding grounds for fleas. The Black Plague ► By 1346 it had reached the Black Sea ports of Caffa and Tana, and by 1347 Italian merchants had accidently carried it back to Italy from the Black Sea. By 1348, epidemics were happening all along the European trade routes. The Black Plague ► Europe would end up losing between 2533% of its population to the plague, mostly in the urban trading cities. ► For unknown reasons, India and subSaharan Africa were largely spared the devastating effects of the plague (India will grow from about 90 million people in 1300 to about 105 million in 1500). The Black Plague ► Because of the human toll the plague created, social unrest also followed its path. ► In western Europe, urban workers demanded higher wages, and many left their homes looking for better conditions. ► Political authorities responded by freezing wages and forbidding workers to leave their homes. The Black Plague ► Thousands of rural peasants tried to move to regions where landlords offered better terms; landlords responded by restricting the peasant’s freedom to move and imposing labor requirements (serfdom). ► Disgruntled workers and peasants mounted a series of rebellions that shook western Europe, but all were put down. ► The plague would eventually subside in the 17th Century. Ming Dynasty China ► By the mid-14th Century, the Mongol Yuan dynasty was in disarray. ► Financial mismanagement and political conflict led to assassinations and factional fighting among the Mongols. ► In 1368, with the plague raging, the Yuan dynasty collapsed, and the Mongols left China en masse and returned to the steppes, leaving China in political turmoil. Ming Dynasty China ► If you were able to be a traveler in time and go back to the 15th century, Ming China would be the place to start. ► Ming China was heir to a long tradition of effective governance, sophisticated artistic achievements, and a highly productive economy. Ming Dynasty China ► Even though China had been greatly disrupted by nearly a century of Mongol rule and its population greatly reduced by the plague, during the Ming dynasty (13681644) China recovered. Ming Dynasty China ► The first Ming emperor was Hongwu, a man who came from a family so poor, he spent much of his youth as a beggar. ► Orphaned as a youth, Hongwu entered a Buddhist monastery to assure himself of food, clothing, and shelter. Ming Dynasty China ► Because of his size and strength, he came to the attention of military commanders, and he rose through the ranks to lead the rebellious forces that toppled the Yuan dynasty. ► In 1368 he became emperor Hongwu and proclaimed the establishment of the “Ming” dynasty (Ming means “brilliant”). Ming Dynasty China ► During the early decades of his dynasty, Hongwu sought to eliminate all traces of foreign (Mongol) rule, discouraging the use of Mongol names and dress, while promoting Confucian learning based on the models of the Han, T’ang, and Song dynasties (even though he cared little for scholarly matters). ► Culturally, the Ming looked to the past (preMongol). Ming Dynasty China ► Politically, Hongwu reestablished the civil service examination system that the Mongols had neglected and he created a highly centralized government based around the emperor. ► In 1380 when he suspected his chief minister of involvement in a treasonous plot, Hongwu had the minister executed along with his bureaucratic allies, then he abolished the minister’s position. Ming Dynasty China ► From that point forward, Ming emperors ruled directly, without the aid of their chief ministers, and they closely supervised imperial affairs. ► Ming emperors demanded absolute obedience to their policies and initiatives. Ming Dynasty China ► They relied heavily on the mandarins, a special class of powerful officials sent out as emissaries of the central government to ensure local officials implemented imperial policy. Ming Dynasty China cadre of eunuchs personally loyal to the emperor also had great authority, much to the chagrin of the mandarins (as castrated men, there was no fear of them trying to seize power and trying to create a dynasty). ►A Ming Dynasty China ► The Ming used eunuchs much more extensively than their predecessors with the expectation that servants whose fortunes depended exclusively on the emperor’s favor would work especially diligently to advance the emperor’s interests. Ming Dynasty China ► Hongwu wanted to eliminate all governmental corruption (a major problem under the Mongols). ► He tried to impress all officials with the honesty, loyalty, and discipline he expected from them through the practice of public beatings for those found guilty of corruption or incompetence. Ming Dynasty China ► Officials charged with misdeeds were beaten on their bare tushies (several even died). ► Those who survived never recovered from the humiliation. ► Reverting back to Confucian veneration, students were expected to follow the instructions of their teachers without question (even if the teachers were wrongbut you know teachers are NEVER wrong!-) Ming Dynasty China ► One student at the imperial academy dared to dispute the lessons of one of his teachers and was beheaded…his severed head was put on a pole and hung at the academy entrance. ► There wasn’t a problem with order in the classroom after that. Ming Dynasty China ► While building a tightly centralized bureaucracy, Ming rulers conscripted laborers to rebuild irrigation systems that the Mongols had neglected. ► Agricultural production soared as a result. ► They also promoted the manufacture of porcelain, lacquerware, and fine silk and cotton textiles. Ming Dynasty China ► Ming rulers did not actively promote trade with foreign lands, but private Chinese merchants eagerly sought out commercial opportunities and developed a thriving business marketing Chinese products from Japan to the Malay Peninsula. ► Domestic trade surged within China, which reflected increasing productivity and prosperity. Ming Dynasty China ► In 1402, Hongwu’s successor was crowned, an emperor named Yongle (Yung la) =emperor of perpetual happiness. ► He moved the capital of China from Nanjing to Beijing (1402)…an area to the north not far from the Great Wall which had been depopulated by the Mongols. Ming Dynasty China ► Emperor Yongle (r 14021422) sponsored an enormous Encyclopedia of some 4,000+ volumes. ► With contributions from over 2,000 scholars, this work was to compile all previous writing on history, geography, ethics, government and more. Ming Dynasty China ► Yongle is also known for building the famous Forbidden City in Beijing. ► Starting in 1406, Yongle had over 1,000,000 peasants conscripted to build what would become the largest palace complex in the world. Ming Dynasty China ► Thousands of peasants were sent into the forests of southwestern China where they were to cut great timbers for construction. ► These people were at the mercy of disease, starvation, and wild animals…it is believed over ½ of them died. ► It would take four years to get these timbers from the forests to Beijing and when construction began in 1417, it would take 15 years to complete. Ming Dynasty China ► The Ming vigorously tried to repair the damage of the Mongol years by restoring millions of acres to cultivation; rebuilding canals, reservoirs, and irrigation works; and planting, according to some estimates, over a billion trees to reforest China. Ming Dynasty China ► China also undertook the largest and most impressive maritime expeditions the world had ever seen. ► Since the 11th century, Chinese sailors and traders had been a major presence in the South China Sea and in Southeast Asian port cities. Ming Dynasty China ► An enormous fleet, commissioned by Emperor Yongle himself, was launched in 1405, followed over the next 28 years by six more such expeditions. ► On board the more than 300 ships were nearly 30,000 sailors and soldiers, 180 physicians, hundreds of government officials, 5 astrologers, 7 high-ranking “grand eunuchs,” carpenters, tailors, accountants, merchants, translators, and cooks. Ming Dynasty China Ming Dynasty China ► Visiting many ports in Southeast Asia, Indonesia, India, Arabia, and East Africa, these fleets, captained by Admiral Zheng He (a Muslim eunuch from western China), sought to bring distant peoples and states into the Chinese tribute system. Ming Dynasty China ► Dozens of local rulers accompanied the fleets back to China, where they presented the emperor with gifts (and tribute), performed the required rituals of submission (kowtow), and in return, received abundant gifts, titles, and trading opportunities. ► Chinese officials were amused by some of the exotic products found abroad, especially ostriches, zebras, and giraffes brought back for the royal zoo. Ming Dynasty China ► The giraffe became the unicorn of Chinese legends. Ming Dynasty China ► Officially described as “bringing order to the world,” Zheng He’s expeditions sought to establish Chinese power and prestige in the Indian Ocean and to exert Chinese control over foreign trade in the region. Ming Dynasty China ► However the Chinese did not try to conquer or colonize new territories or spread their culture. ► On one of the voyages, Zheng He erected on the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) a tablet honoring the Buddha, Allah, and the Hindu deity Vishnu. Ming Dynasty China ► The Chinese fleet as it probably looked on the oceans: Ming Dynasty China ► Zheng He generally obtained his goals through diplomacy as his 28,000 armed soldiers usually overawed his hosts. ► But a contemporary reported that Zheng He walked like a tiger, and did not shrink from violence when he considered it necessary to impress a foreign leader of China’s military might. ► He also ruthlessly suppressed pirates who had long plagued east Asian waters. Ming Dynasty China ► Probably the most surprising feature of these voyages was how abruptly and deliberately they ended. ► After 1433, Chinese officials simply stopped their expeditions and allowed the most expensive and magnificent fleet in history (to that point) to disintegrate in port. ► The greatest navy in the world had been ordered into “extinction.” Ming Dynasty China ► Part of the reason was the death of their patron, Emperor Yongle. ► But many high-ranking Confucian scholar officials had long seen the expeditions as a waste of money because China, they believed, was the self-sufficient “middle kingdom,” requiring little from the outside (barbarian) world. ► The Confucian scholars believed the money would be better spent on agriculture. Ming Dynasty China ► In the eyes of the Confucian scholar officials, the real danger to China came from the north, where nomadic barbarians (including the Mongols) constantly threatened. ► The Confucian scholars also saw the voyages as a project of the much despised court eunuchs and saw this as a way to lessen their power. Ming Dynasty China ► Private Chinese merchants continued to trade with Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia, but they did so without the support of their government. ► China turned its back on what was surely within its reach…total domination of the Indian Ocean region. European Comparison ► At the other end of the Eurasian continent, similar processes of population recovery, political consolidation, cultural flowering, and overseas expansion were underway. ► Western Europe, having escaped the Mongol onslaught but devastated by the plague, began to rebound during the second half of the 15th century. European Comparison ► Politically, Europe, like China continued its earlier patterns of state building. ► In China, this meant a single, centralized government that encompassed almost the whole of its civilization. ► In Europe, it was a fragmented system of separate, independent, and very competitive states. European Comparison ► Europe in 1500: European Comparison ► Many of these states—Spain, Portugal, France, England, the city-states of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Milan, and Florence), various German principalities—learned to tax their citizens more efficiently, to create more efficient and centralized administrative structures, and to raise standing armies. European Comparison ►A small Russian state emerged, centered on the city of Moscow as Mongol rule faded away. ► Much of Europe’s state building was based on the needs of war, a frequent occurrence in such a competitive and fragmented political environment. ► Long term implications? European Comparison ► For example, England and France fought intermittently for more than a century in the Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453) over rival claims to territory in France. European Comparison ► Nothing remotely similar disturbed the internal life of Ming dynasty China. ► A renewed cultural blossoming, the Renaissance (French for “rebirth”), paralleled the revival of Confucianism in China. ► In Europe, that blossoming celebrated and reclaimed a classical Greco/Roman tradition that had been kept alive in the Arab world. European Comparison ► Beginning in the vibrant commercial cities of Italy between 1350-1500, the Renaissance reflected the belief of the wealthy/powerful elite that they were living in a new age, far removed from the confined religious world of feudal Europe. ► The few educated citizens of these cities sought inspiration in the classical art/literature of ancient Greece/Rome—they were “returning to the sources” as they put it. European Comparison ► The elite patronized great Renaissance artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, whose paintings were far more naturalistic, particularly when portraying the human body, than those of their medieval counterparts. European Comparison ► Even though religious themes remained prominent, Renaissance artists began to focus more on the secular, on contemporary figures or scenes from ancient mythology. European Comparison ► In the work of scholars, known as “humanists,” reflection on secular topics such as history, grammar, politics, poetry, rhetoric, and ethics was more important than religious topics. European Comparison ► Machiavelli’s (1469-1527) famous work The Prince, was a prescription for political success based on the way politics actually operated in a highly competitive Italy of rival city-states rather than on idealistic or religiously based principles. ► Is it better to be loved or European Comparison ► Heavily influenced by classical models, Renaissance figures were more interested in capturing the unique qualities of particular individuals and in describing the world as it was than in portraying or exploring eternal religious truths. ► In its focus on the affairs of this world, Renaissance culture reflected the urban bustle and commercial preoccupations of the Italian cities. European Comparison ► The secular elements of the Renaissance challenged the otherworldliness of Christian culture, and its individualism signaled the dawning of a more capitalist economy of private entrepreneurs. ► A new Europe was in the making, more different from its own recent past than Ming dynasty China was from its pre-Mongol glory. European Comparison ► During the Renaissance, to become wealthy and stay wealthy required a high standard of education…one could not be successful in commerce or industry without knowing how to read and write and being skillful with numbers. ► Increased business meant more partnership agreements, complicated wills, etc…i.e. more law. European Comparison ► The influence of the past was strengthened by the fact that the Renaissance had no conception of progress…until the Renaissance men did not believe that society could steadily improve itself by inventing new ways to exploit resources and organize economies and governments. ► It seemed to Renaissance thinkers that the ancients had done nearly everything about as well as it could be done. European Comparison ► Early humanists believed that the intellectual life should be one of solitude and study. ► Later humanists, especially in Florence, believed that it was the duty of an intellectual to live an active life for one’s community and country. ► They also believed that their study of the humanities should be put to the service of their community or country. European Comparison ► So there were three basic characteristics to the Italian Renaissance: ► First: Renaissance Italy was largely an urban society made up of powerful citystates. ► These city-states became centers of Italian political, economic and social life. European Comparison ► Second: The Renaissance signaled an age of recovery from the disasters at the end of the post-classical period…namely the destruction caused by the Black Plague, the political disorder that was caused by it, and the collapse of the world economy. European Comparison ► Third: The leaders of the Renaissance began to look at humans in a new way. ► For the first time in over 1000 years, an emphasis was placed on individual ability. ► Individuals tried to achieve a new social ideal: the well-rounded personality or universal person who was capable of achievements in many areas of life (today known as a “Renaissance man” or “woman”). European Comparison ► Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) for example, was a painter, sculptor, architect, inventor, scientist, and mathematician. ► The ideal of a “Renaissance Man.” European Comparison ► Our modern notion of individualism comes from this period, as people began to seek personal credit for their achievements…this was in contrast to the medieval notion that all glory goes to God, not the individual. European Comparison ► Some of the greatest artists in history did not toil as anonymous craftsmen, they sought prestige by competing for the patronage of secular individuals like merchants and bankers. European Comparison ► Before the dawn of the Renaissance (i.e Late Medieval period 12th-14th centuries), Europe was dominated by asymmetrical and ornate Gothic architecture. European Comparison ► In the early 1400’s, architects reverted back to the older styles of Romanesque and Greek. ► The architects of the Renaissance period refined Greek and Roman architecture and used new materials not usually associated with Greece, like brick. ► Arab influences are also evident (like the curved arches). European Comparison European Comparison ► The Vatican: European Comparison ► The Europeans, like the Chinese, began major outward-bound maritime expeditions during the early part of the 15th century. ► Initiated in 1415 by the Portuguese and supported by the state and blessed by the Pope, their voyages began sailing down the west coast of Africa. ► By the end of the century, two expeditions marked major breakthroughs (Columbus in 1492, and Vasco da Gama in 1497). European Comparison ► The differences between the Chinese and European oceangoing ventures were striking, especially in terms of size. ► Columbus captained three ships with a crew of 90, while da Gama had four ships manned by about 170 sailors. European Comparison ► These were tiny fleets compared to the great expeditions of Zheng He. ► “All the ships of Columbus and da Gama combined could have been stored on a single deck of a single vessel in the fleet that set sail under Zheng He.” European Comparison ► Motivation was also vastly different between the two civilizations. ► Europeans were seeking the wealth of Africa and Asia—gold, spices, silk, and more. ► They also were looking for Christian converts and of possible Christian allies against threatening Muslim powers. European Comparison ► China, by contrast, faced no equivalent power, needed no military allies in the Indian Ocean, and required little that these regions produced. ► China also didn’t have the impulse to convert foreigners to Chinese culture or religion like the Europeans. European Comparison ► The confident and overwhelmingly powerful Chinese fleet didn’t seek conquests or colonies, while the Europeans soon tried to monopolize by force the commerce of the Indian Ocean and violently carved out huge empires in the Americas. ► This was why the voyages of Zheng He were neglected for so long in China’s historical memory—they led nowhere. European Comparison ► Even though the European expeditions were smaller and less promising, they were initial steps on their journey to world hegemony. ► But why did the Europeans continue a process that the Chinese had deliberately abandoned? ► First, Europe had no unified political authority with the power to end its maritime outreach. European Comparison ► Its system of competing states, so unlike China’s single unified empire, ensured that once begun, rivalry alone would drive the Europeans to the ends of the earth. ► Beyond this, much of Europe’s elite had an interest in overseas expansion. ► The wealth/greed generated from increased merchant activity had implications for monarchs and the Church too… European Comparison ► Monarchs saw new revenue streams (from taxing trade or outright seizing resources) that could fund larger, better equipped militaries, fund building projects, etc. ► Lesser nobles (even commoners) might imagine fame and fortune abroad. ► The Church saw the possibility of widespread conversion. Ming vs Europe ► In China, by contrast, support for Zheng He’s voyages was very shallow in official circles, and when the emperor Yongle passed from the scene, those opposed to the voyages prevailed within the politics of the court. Ming vs Europe ► Ming emperors after Yongle believed that China had been weakened by its contact with other people, so they were much more cautious in their trade with outsiders, and much more likely to believe that it was best for China to remold itself in the greatness of the past. Ming vs Europe ► The Chinese were very much aware of their own antiquity, they believed strongly in the absolute superiority of their culture, and they felt with good reason that, should they need something from abroad, others would bring it to them. Ming vs Europe ► China made the world’s most desirable products, especially after Ming craftsmen began creating distinctive and beautiful blue and white porcelain. ► In 2007, this Ming jar sold for $3.9 million at auction. Ming vs Europe ► The Ming understood that much of the empire’s wealth depended on trade, but its leaders (especially after Yongle) were always wary of outsiders, afraid to lose China again to rule by non-Chinese. ► So they set out to rebuild the empire as independently as possible, repairing irrigation systems, factories, internal trade connections, and even the Great Wall. Ming vs Europe ► The Great Wall as it looks today was a product of the Ming. Ming vs Europe ► Ming emperors actively promoted Chinese cultural traditions, especially Confucian and Neo-Confucian schools. ► For many years, the Ming lived up to their name (“brilliant”), and built a strong China that clearly reflected its age old conflict between opening its doors to others and closing them tightly to keep intruders out. Ming vs Europe ► Europeans, like the Ming, also believed themselves to be unique, particularly in religious terms as the possessors of Christianity, what they considered the “one true religion.” Ming vs Europe ► In material terms, they sought out the greater riches of the East, and they were highly conscious that Muslim power (the Ottomans) blocked easy access to these treasures and posed a military and religious threat to Europe itself. ► All this propelled continuing European expansion in the centuries that followed. Ming vs Europe ► The Chinese withdrawal from the Indian Ocean facilitated the European entry. ► It cleared the way for the Portuguese to enter the region, where they faced only the eventual, moderate naval power of the Ottomans. Ming vs Europe ► Had Vasco da Gama encountered Zheng He’s massive fleet as his four small ships sailed into Asian waters in 1498, world history would likely be very different. Ming vs Europe ► So as it turned out, China’s abandonment of oceanic voyaging and Europe’s embrace of the seas marked different responses to a common problem that both civilizations shared— growing populations and land shortage. Ming vs Europe ► In the centuries that followed, China’s rice-based agriculture was able to expand production by more intensive use of the land, while the country’s territorial expansion was inland toward Central Asia. Ming vs Europe ► By contrast, Europe’s agriculture, based on wheat and livestock, expanded primarily by acquiring new lands in overseas possessions, which were gained as a consequence of their commitment to oceanic expansion.