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Druze
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
The Druze are a relatively small Middle Eastern religious sect characterized by an
eclectic system of doctrines and by a cohesion and loyalty among its members that
have enabled them to maintain through almost a thousand years of turbulent
history their close-knit identity and distinctive faith. They numbered more than
250,000 in the late 20th century and lived mostly in Lebanon, with smaller
communities in Israel and Syria. They call themselves muwaḥḥidūn (“monotheists”).
(Source)
The Druze permit no conversion, either away from or to their religion, and no
intermarriage. In these circumstances the survival of their religion and community
across almost a millennium is the more remarkable in that their religious system is
kept secret not only from the outside world but in part even from their own
number; only an elite of initiates participate fully in their religious services and have
access to the secret teachings of the ḥikmah, the Druze religious doctrine. In times
of persecution, a Druze is allowed to deny his faith outwardly if his life is in danger.
This concession, or taqīyah, is allowed according to at-Taʿlīm (“Instruction”), the
anonymously written “catechism” of Druze faith. (Source)
Although the Druze cloak their religion in secrecy, the source materials for
outsiders’ knowledge of Druze history and religion are not as scarce as might be
expected. Muslim and Christian accounts of historical events, as well as comments
on and assessments of the Druze religion and customs, should be treated with
reserve and caution because of their polemical character. Jewish sources
contemporary with the first half of the reign of al-Ḥākim present him in a favourable
light. (Source)
Areas of Influence
Most of the Druze towns and villages in Israel are populated exclusively by Druze,
although over the last century a minority of Christians and Muslims have become
residents in some of them. They are located in the north of the country, mainly on
hilltops; historically as a defense against attack and persecution. (Source)The
Jordanian Druze reside in and around Amman. (Source) The Druze in Lebanon have
mainly resided in the rural southeast of the country in the Shuf, Al Matn, Hasbayya,
and Rashayya Regions, although certain Druze live in Beirut and its surrounding
suburbs in tight-knit neighborhoods (Source)
Followers
Worldwide there are probably about one million Druze living mainly in Syria and
Lebanon, with 104,000 in Israel, including about 18,000 in the Golan (which came
under Israeli rule in 1967) and several thousands who emigrated to Europe and
North and South America. (Source)
Conflicts and animosities
In the past, The leader of Lebanon's Druze community Walid Jumblatt has accused
Damascus of assassinating his father in 1977, and said President Bashar al-Assad
was a "savage, a liar and a criminal". Mr Jumblatt has said his criticism of Mr Assad
was "inappropriate".
Mr Jumblatt was a former ally of Syria, but fell out with them after Damascus was
linked to the 2005 murder of former Lebanese prime minister Rafik Hariri.
In 2008 Syrian-backed Hezbollah fought Mr Jumblatt's Druze militias in a conflict
that brought Lebanon to the brink of civil war.
Ibadism
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
Ibadism is a distinct sect of Islam that is neither Sunni nor Shi‘i. The sect developed
out of the seventh-century Islamic sect known as the Khawarij, and shares with that
group the desire to found a righteous Muslim society and the belief that true
Muslims are only to be found in their own sect. Ibadis refer to themselves as “the
Muslims” or “the people of straightness” (ahl al-istiqama)
The righteous Imamate is a topic of great importance in Ibadi legal literature. The
Imam should be chosen for his knowledge and piety, without any regard to race or
lineage. He should be chosen by the elders of the community, who are also obligated
to depose him if he acts unjustly. The last “true Imam” to unite the entire country of
Oman under his power was Ahmad ibn Sa‘id (ruled 1754-1783 CE), founder of the
BuSa‘idi dynasty that remains in power to this day.
Area of Influence
The Ibadi’s main areas of influence are in Oman, East Africa, the Mzab valley of
Algeria, the Nafus mountains of Libya, and the island of Jerba in Tunisia.
Government Association
Closely tied to the Omani government
Shi’ite Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
The five Shia principles of religion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
belief in divide unity (tawhid);
prophecy (nubuwwah);
resurrection (maad);
divine justice (adl);
the belief in the Imams as successors of the Prophet (imamah).
The latter principle is not accepted by Sunnis.
Area of Influence
Followers
Government Association
Conflicts and animosities
Twelvers / Ithna Ashari Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
The Twelvers are the largest Shiite group today, but they are not the only one, and
historically they were often a very small, weak group. They emerged as a distinct
Shii group mostly in the third Muslim century (the eighth century C.E.) after the
death of the twelfth Imam. Twelver Shiism appears to have grown in size partly
because it did not have a living Imam; many other descendants or alleged
descendants of the Prophet called themselves the Imam, formented militarty revolt,
and were killed. By not having a living Imam, Twelver Shiism was able to survive
and grow, and other Shiis often were absorbed into it when their revolts were
crushed and their Imams executed.
In law, the Twelvers do not accept hadiths, transmitted by enemies of the Imans
such as ‘A’isha, and make use also of the sayings of the Imams. In addition to the
Shi‘i regulations for the prayer call and ablutions, they admit the doctrine of taqiya
or katman, the prophecy or even necessity of hiding one’s true beliefs among nonShi’is...
An integral part of the Shii doctrine of the Imam is that he is the legitimate political
leader of Islam; just as the caliphs usurped Ali's authority, modern governments, in
the absence of the authority of the Imam, are not legitimate. Most Imams of the
Twelver line, after Hossein's martydom, did not make a claim to political leadership;
rather, they acknowledged the authority of the caliphs, and urged their followers to
do the same. Thus political quietism was a common option pursued by Twelver
Shiis. Early Shii thinkers living after the occultation of the Imam felt leaderless. They
felt a profound alienation from the world and generally adopted a quietest political
policy.
Within Twelver Shia Islam there are three major legal schools, the Usuli, the Akhbari
and the Shayki. Akhbaris constitute a very small group and are found primarily
around Basra and in southern Iraq as well as aroundKhorramshahr in Iran. The
dominant Usuli school is more liberal in its legal outlook and allows greater use of
interpretation (ijtihad) in reaching legal decisions, and considers that one must obey
a mujtahid (learned interpreter of the law) as well as an Imam.
Area of Influence
Twelver Shiites are the majority in Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan and also have substantial
populations in Turkey, Pakistan, Lebanon, Syria, India, Afghanistan and Bahrain.
Followers
The Twelvers are by far the largest group of Shiite Muslims, because the Iranians are
Twelvers. Perhaps eighty percent of the Shiis are Twelvers. Twelvers constitute
ninety percent of the modern population of Iran and fifty-five to sixty percent of the
population of Iraq.
Seveners / Ismaili Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs

Ismailis are Shi'a Muslims who claim that Ismail, the eldest son of Imam
Jaffar, was the rightful ruler of all Muslims. They are also known as the
"Seveners", because Imam Jaffar was the seventh and, according to them, the
last Imam. An important Shi‘i Muslim community, the Ismailis as an entity
emerged in 765 from a disagreement over the successor to the sixth imam,
Ja‘far al-Sadiq. According to the Ismailis, starting from Ali, the eldest son has
always inherited the right to rule. Shia Twelvers, those who accept the first
Twelve Imams, believe that Jafar, the Sixth Imam, passed over his eldest son,
Ismail, in favor of Ismail's brother Musa al Kazim. Ismailis, however, believe
that Jafar appointed Ismail to be the Seventh Imam--hence Ismailis are often
called Seveners.

Ismaili Shia doctrine closely resembled Twelver Shia Islam with regard to
observance of the sharia but also included a system of philosophy and
science coordinated with religion that proved the divine origin of the
Imamate and the rights of the Fatimids to it. Ubaid Allah al Mahdi, the
founder of the Fatimid Dynasty, came to North Africa in the early tenth
century and actively promoted the Ismaili faith. The Fatimid rulers
proclaimed themselves true caliphs.

Ismailis accept many Shia doctrines, such as the esoteric nature of truth and
the inspiration of the Imams. Although holding their Imams to be of divine
origin, as the Shia do, Ismailis have a dual Imamate. They believe the
succession of visible Imams has continued to the present. There are,
however, two imams, the visible and the hidden, the speaker and the silent.
The identity of the hidden imam is not known to the community but it is
believed he will return to lead the faithful. Ismailis generally follow the
religious practice of the Shia Twelvers in prayers, fasts, and Quranic
prescriptions, but in their conservatism they resemble Sunnis on some
points. For example, they do not observe the tenth of Muharram in the
impassioned way of the Shia.

Ismaili beliefs are complex and syncretic, combining elements from the
philosophies of Plotinus, Pythagoras, Aristotle, gnosticism, and the
Manichaeans, as well as components of Judaism, Christianity, and Eastern
religions. Ismaili conceptions of the Imamat differ greatly from those of other
Muslims and their tenets are unique. Their beliefs about the creation of the
world are idiosyncratic, as is their historical ecumenism, tolerance of
religious differences, and religious hierarchy. There is a division of theology
into exoteric (including the conservative Shariah) and esoteric (including the
mystical exegesis of the Quran which leads to haqiqa, the ultimate realty).
These beliefs and practices are veiled in secrecy and Ismaili place particular
emphasis on taqiya meaning to shield or guard, the practice that permits the
believer to deny publicly his Shia membership for self-protection, as long as
he continues to believe and worship in private. Taqiya is permissible in most
Shia, and some Sunni, sects.
Area of Influence
The Ismailis are divided into several main branches. One, who call themselves
Bohras, have their headquarters in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), India. Another
branch -- known as Khojas -- are headed by the Agha Khan and concentrated in
Gujarât State, India.
Followers
The Ismailis have around 15 million followers.
Sunni Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
Originally political, the differences between Sunni and Shia interpretations rapidly
took on theological andmetaphysical overtones. In principle a Sunni approaches God
directly; there is no clerical hierarchy. Some duly appointed religious figures,
however, exert considerable social and political power. Imams usually are men of
importance in their communities but they need not have any formal training; among
the beduins, for example, any tribal member may lead communal prayers.
Committees of socially prominent worshipers usually run the major mosque-owned
land and gifts. In many Arab countries, the administration of waqfs (religious
endowments) has come under the influence of the state. Qadis (judges) and imams
are appointed by the government.
Sunni Islam does not possess clerical hierarchies and centralized institutions. The
absence of a hierarchy has been a source of strength that has permitted the faith to
adapt to local conditions. However, it also has been a weakness that makes it
difficult for Sunni Muslims to achieve any significant degree of solidarity. Despite
some very minor disputes there are many Sub-Groups in the four groups like
Kharjiites, Wahabis, Deobandi, Barelvi, Ahle-Sunnat Wal Jamat, Ahle Hadith, Ghurba
Ahle Hadits, Sunnis of Green Turban, Sunnis of Brown Turbans etc. etc. They declare
each other wrong and seldom offer prayer behind each other.
Among Sunni Muslims, effective power and the ability to maintain order are
sufficient for legitimate authority, in stark contrast to the more uncompromising
Shia views of government as the sole province of religious leaders. For Sunnis, even
a bad Muslim ruler is preferable to chaos and anarchy, and the
Sunni religioustradition contains only a limited right to rebel. However, if a ruler
commands something that is contrary to God’s law, the subject’s duty of obedience
lapses.
Area of Influence
Followers
Most scholars believe that Sunni Muslims comprise 87-90 percent of the world's 1.5
billion Muslims. (Source)
Government Association
Conflicts and animosities
Shafi`i Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
The Shaf'i school is considered the easiest school and the Hanbali is considered the
hardest in terms of social and personal rules. Hanafi took Shafi as his rival and vice
versa. Tradition, the consensus of the Muslim community and reasoning by analogy
are characteristics of this school.
Area of Influence
The Shaf'i school is predominant in east Africa, Indonesia and southeast Asia. Al Shafii’s
(d. 855) thought influenced Indonesia, Southern Arabia, Lower Egypt, parts of Syria,
Palestine, Eastern Africa, India and South Africa. The school remains predominant in
Southern Arabia, Bahrain, the Malay Archipelago, East Africa and several parts of
Central Asia. Shafi'i is practiced in Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.
Followers
It is followed by approximately 15% of Muslims world-wide.
Government Association
Conflicts and animosities
Hanafi Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
Hanafi is one of four “schools of law” and considered the oldest and most liberal
school of law within Sunni Islam. It makes considerable use of reason or opinion in
legal decisions. The Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence was founded by Abu
Hanifa. He was one of the earliest Muslim scholar-interpreters to seek new ways of
applying Islamic tenets to everyday life. Abu Hanifa's interpretation of Muslim law
was extremely tolerant of differences within Muslim communities. He also
separated belief from practice, elevating belief over practice. Hanafi took Shafi as his
rival and vice versa. Hanafi scholars refuse to control a human religious or spiritual
destiny, and refuse to give that right to any human institution. Among the Hudud
crimes, those crimes against God, blasphemy is not listed by the Hanafis. Hanafis
concluded that blasphemy could not be punished by the state. The state should not
be involved in deciding God-human relationships. Rather, the state should be
concerned only with the violation of human rights within the jurisdiction of the
human affairs and human relationships.
Area of Influence
The Sunni Hanafi school is dominant in the Arab Middle East, India, Pakistan and
Afghanistan. The followers of Imam Abu Hanifa (d. 767) are found in Pakistan, India,
Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq, Syria, China, North Africa, Egypt, and in the Malay
Archipelago. The school is followed by the majority of the Muslim population of
Turkey, Albania, the Balkans, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, India and
Iraq. Most of the Kyrgyz are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi school. Ethnic Kazakhs,
who constitute approximately one half of the national population, historically are
Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi School. Ethnic Uzbeks, Uyghurs, and Tatars, comprising
less than 10 percent of the population, also largely are Sunni Hanafi.
Government Association
Sunni Hanafi creed is essentially non-hierarchial and decentralized, which has made
it difficult for 20th century rulers to incorporate its religious leaders into strong
centralized state systems.
Conflicts and animosities
A sectarian dispute in the United States was transformed into a mass hostage taking by
Hanafi Muslims in Washington, DC in 1977. The Hanafi Movement in the United States
was founded by Hamas Abdul Khaalis in 1968. Khaalis, formerly Ernest 2X McGee, had
been the Nation of Islam's first National Secretary and a friend of Malcolm X. He had
converted to orthodox Islam and founded the Hanafi Movement with money donated by
Kareem Abdul-Jabar. On 09 March 1977, Khaalis and about a dozen of his followers
armed with shotguns and machetes seized control of seized the District Building [city
hall], the B'nai B'rith building, and the Islamic Center, in the District of Columbia.
Khaalis said they were seeking revenge for the murders of Khaalis' family members by
Black Muslims in 1973. They held 134 hostages for more than 39 hours, they shot
Washington DC city councilman Marion Barry in the chest, and they shot a radio reporter
dead. The standoff ended and the hostages were freed after ambassadors from three
Islamic nations joined the negotiations. The Hanafis were convicted and sentenced to
long terms in prison.
Deobandi Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
The Deobandi movement was founded in response to British colonial rule
in India and later hardened in Pakistan into bitter opposition to what its members
views as the country's neo-colonial elite. The Deobandi school argues that the
reason Islamic societies have fallen behind the West in all spheres of endeavor is
because they have been seduced by the amoral and material accoutrements of
Westernization, and have deviated from the original pristine teachings of the
Prophet. The Islamic Deobandi militants share the Taliban's restrictive view of
women, and regard Pakistan's minority Shiia as non-Muslim. They seek a pure
leader, or amir, to recreate Pakistani society according to the egalitarian model of
Islam's early days under the Prophet Mohammed.
Area of Influence
The Deobandi interpretation of Islamic teachings is widely practiced in Pakistan.
Government Association
President Musharraf is a Deobandi, actually born in the city in India, where the
school took it's name.
Conflicts and animosities

During the first half of April 2000, the Government of Pakistan permitted a 3day conference organized by the Deobandi Muslim political party JamiatUlema-Islami (JUI). Several speakers at the conference made anti-Western
political declarations. Deobandi and Barelvi sects struggled, sometimes
violently, for control over local mosques in Lahore neighborhoods.
Other
The fundamentalist Deoband Dar-ul-Uloom brand of Islam inspired the Taliban
movement and had widespread appeal for Muslim fundamentalists. Most of the
Taliban leadership attended Deobandi-influenced seminaries in Pakistan. The
Deoband school has long sought to purify Islam by discarding supposedly un-Islamic
accretions to the faith and reemphasizing the models established in the Koran and
the customary practices of the Prophet Mohammed.
Barelvi Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
 For the Barelvis, (who are mostly from the Pakistan province of Punjab) the
holy Prophet is a superhuman figure whose presence is all around us at all
times; he is hazir, present; he is not bashar, material or flesh, but nur, light.
The Deobandis, who also revere the Prophet, argue he was the insan-i-kamil,
the perfect person, but still only a man, a mortal. Barelvis emphasise a love of
Muhammad, a semi-divine figure with unique foreknowledge.

The Barelvis follow many Sufi practices, including use of music (Qawwali)
and intercession by their teacher. A key difference between Barelvi and
Deobandi that Barelvi's believe in intercession between humans and Divine
Grace. This consists of the intervention of an ascending, linked and unbroken
chain of holy personages, pirs, reaching ultimately to Prophet Mohammad,
who intercede on their behalf with Allah. It is a more superstitious - but also
a more tolerant - tradition of Indian Islam. Their critics claim that Barelvis
are guilty of committing innovation (Bid’at) and therefore, they are deviated
from the true path - the path ofSunnah.

Unlike the Deobandis, the Barelvis see the Prophet Mohammad as more than
a man, a part of the divine light of Allah. This doctrine gives rise to a form of
Islam that provides a space for holy men and esoteric practices and graves
appear to be often more ornate than those found within Deobandi
communities. The Wahhabi (Arabia), Deobandi (Pakistan and India) and
Jamaat-I-Islami all are anti-sufi, and against the over devotion to Muhammad,
whereas the Barelvis emphasize Muhammad's uniqueness. Indeed, nearly
85% of South Asia’s Sunni Muslims are said to follow the Barelvi school,
closer to Sufism.
Area of Influence
Barelvi tradition is based mostly in the province of Punjab.
Followers
The non-Pakhtun population of Pakistan is predominantly Barelvi
Government Association
The Pakistan Movement got support from the Barelvis (Low Church). It had faced
opposition from the NationalIndian Congress which was supported by the Deobandi
seminaries (High Church). However, after the establishment of Pakistan as an
Islamic state in 1949, Barelvi Low Church was too mixed up with mysticism to be a
source of Islamic law. Ironically, Pakistan moved away from the 'spiritual pluralism'
of the Barelvis, who had supported Pakistan, and relied on the more puritanical
Deobandis who had opposed it.
Conflicts and animosities
Maliki Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs
Maliki is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam, named
for Malik ibn Anas (ca. 710-95), a leading jurist from Medina. This school recorded
the Medina consensus of opinion, and uses hadith (tradition) as a guide.
Area of Influence
The Maleki is predominant in north, central and west Africa and Egypt.
Followers
It is the second-largest of the four schools, followed by approximately 25% of
Muslims. Arabia, North and West Africa, Upper Egypt and the Sudan is the location.
Government Association
Conflicts and animosities
Hanbali Islam
Distinguishing Religious Beliefs

Under the Hanbali interpretation of Shari’a law, judges may discount the
testimony of people who are not practicing Muslims or who do not have the
correct faith. Legal sources report that testimony by Shi’a is often ignored in
Saudi courts of law or is deemed to have less weight than testimony by Sunnis.
The explanation of Saudi officials is that their Hanbali school of Islam religiously
mandates that they deny other religions the right to function openly on the
Arabian Peninsula - a right that is clearly protected in international law.
Area of Influence
Followers
Government Association
The government of Saudi Arabia vigorously enforces its prohibition against all forms of
public religious expression other than that of those who follow the government’s
interpretation and presentation of the Hanbali school of Sunni Islam.
Conflicts and animosities