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AN APPRAISAL OF THE LAW RELATING TO OIL POLLUTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESTORATION IN NIGERIA By OLANREWAJU ADIGUN FAGBOHUN LL.B (Hons), LL.M (Lagos), BL THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL LAW, OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY, ILE-IFE, IN PART FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN LAW 2008 TABLE OF CONTENT Authorization to Copy ………………………………………………… ii Certification ………………………………………………………… iii Acknowledgments ………………………………………………………... iv – vi Table of Contents ……………………………………………………….. vii – x Table of Cases ………………………………………………………. xi – xiv Table of Statutes and Statutory Instruments ………………… xv - xviii Table of Conventions and Treaties …………………………… xix – xx Abbreviations …………………………………………………… xxi – xxii Abstract ………………………………………………….. xxiii - xxiv Chapter One: Introduction ………………………………………… Background to the Study ………………………………………… Objectives of the Study ………………………………………………… Literature Review ………………………………………………………… Statement of Research Problem ………………………………………. Rationale for Study ………………………………………………… Research Methodology ………………………………………………… Scope and Structure of Study ………………………………………… 1 1 8 9 34 34 36 38 Chapter Two: Definitions and Conceptual Clarification ..…… Introduction ………………………………………………………….. Challenge of Definition ………………………………………………….. Environment ………………………………………………………….. Definition of Oil ………………………………………………………….. Pollution Defined ………………………………………………………….. Restoration Defined ………………………………………………….. Distinction from Related Concepts ………………………………….. Rehabilitation ………………………………………………………….. Reclamation ………………………………………………………….. Mitigation ………………………………………………………….. Recovery ………………………………………………………….. Remediation ………………………………………………………….. Replacement or Re-introduction ………………………………….. Re-creation ………………………………………………………….. Enhancement ………………………………………………………….. The Expedience of Restoration ………………………………….. Classification of Restoration ………………………………………….. Environmental Restoration ………………………………………….. Restoration Ecology ………………………………………….. Perspectives of Restoration ………………………………………….. Shallow Restoration ………………………………………………….. Deep Restoration ………………………………………………….. Biocultural Restoration ………………………………………………….. 44 44 44 47 48 50 57 65 66 67 68 69 69 70 70 71 71 73 73 74 75 75 76 76 Chapter Three: Philosophical and Theoretical Perspectives of Restoration ………………………………………………………….. Introduction ………………………………………………………….. Identifying the Contending Perspectives ………………………….. A Theory of Justice ………………………………………………….. Dimensions of the Justice Model ………………………………….. A Theory of the Natural Order ………………………………………….. 78 78 79 84 96 108 Ethics as a Basis of Restoration ………………………………….. Ethical Issues in Ecological Restoration ………………………….. Nature in the Eyes of Indigenous Peoples ………………………….. Economic Models and Environmental Values ………………….. Market Allocation of Natural Resources ………………………….. The Position of Social Ecology ………………………………………….. The Green Ecology Movement ………………………………….. The Oil Industry and Its Impact on the Environment …………………………………... Introduction …………………………………………………………… Nature and Importance of Oil …………………………………………… Oil Exploration in Global History …………………………………… History of Oil in Nigeria …………………………………………………… Nigeria’s Niger Delta …………………………………………………… Environmental Impact of Oil Pollution …………………………… Consequences of Environmental Impact of Pollution …………… Air Quality and the Oil Pollution Problem …………………………… Soil Degradation including Surface and Ground Water …………… The Coastal Zone and the Sea …………………………………………… Effects of Oil Contamination on Plants …………………………… Effects on Natural Landscapes and Habitats …………………… Effects on Cultural Landscapes and Heritages …………………… Physiological and Other Effects on Human Beings …………… 118 126 129 134 144 152 157 Chapter Four: The Interface between Restoration and Compensation …………………………………… Introduction …………………………………………………………… Compensation and Restoration as Remedies …………………… Restoration of the Status Quo …………………………………………… Compensation in Money or Detriment Caused …………………… Punishment …………………………………………………………… Declaration of Rights …………………………………………………… Prevention …………………………………………………………………… Environmental Security and Compensation …………………… Primary Rules of Compensation …………………………………… Environmental Damage and Fault System …………………… Operational Problems of the Non-Fault Scheme …………………… 163 163 164 166 170 183 187 194 194 201 203 207 212 216 217 Chapter Five: 225 225 228 230 231 236 239 240 241 243 244 254 Chapter Six: Common Law and Environmental Restoration 264 Introduction …………………………………………………………… 264 The Common Law of Tort and Security of Eco-Rights ……….. 264 Negligence …………………………………………………………………… 266 Negligence and Special Valuation Problems …………………… 273 Trespass …………………………………………………………………… Trespass and Appropriateness of Damage …………………………… Nuisance ……………………………………………………………………… Social Utility or Economic Loss and the Problem of Substantial Harm in Private Nuisance …………………………………………... Foreseeability of Damage as a Test of Nuisance …………………… Strict Liability …………………………………………………………… 276 281 287 298 306 316 Chapter Seven: Statutory Framework for Environmental Restoration ………………………………………….. Introduction …………………………………………………………………. The Oil Pipelines Act, 1956 ……………………………………………….. The Petroleum Act, 1969 …………………………………………………… The Petroleum Regulations, 1967 ……………………………………….. Petroleum (Drilling and Production) Regulation ……………………… Petroleum Refining Regulations ………………………………………….. Oil in Navigable Waters Act, 1990 ……………………………………. Oil in Navigable Waters Regulations ……………………………………. Associated Gas Re-Injection Act ……………………………………. Federal Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1988 ……………….. Harmful Waste (Special Criminal Provisions etc) Act, 1988……….. Environmental Impact Assessment Act, 1992 ……………………….. Oil and Gas Pipeline Regulations …………………………………… The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999 ………… Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry, 1991 ………………………………………………………………. National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (Establishment) Act ……………………………………………….. Judicial Attitude to Restoration in Nigeria …………………………… Related Judicial Development in Other Jurisdictions ……………… Way Forward for Nigeria’s Judiciary ……………………………………. Institutional Framework …………………………………………………… Department of Petroleum Resources …………………………………… National Oil Spill Detection and Response Agency ………………….. The Niger-Delta Development Commission …………………………… Chapter Eight: 322 322 324 329 331 335 338 339 340 340 344 349 350 351 353 361 371 376 381 339 392 393 396 401 International Environmental Law and Oil Pollution in Nigeria ………………………………. 406 The Concept and Relevance of International Environmental Law .. 406 Institutional Arrangement for Environmental Security …………….. 417 United Nations ……………………………………………………………. 417 Other International Organizations ………………………………………. 418 Regional Organizations ……………………………………………………. 422 Challenges of Enforcement Mechanisms ………………………………. 423 International Laws in the Regulation of Oil Pollution ……………... 427 Traditional Customary International Law ……………………………… 427 Conventions and Treaties ………………………………………………… 432 Convention on the Continental Shelf, 1958 …………………………… 432 Convention on the High Seas, 1958 (Geneva) ………………………… 433 Act Regarding Navigation and Economic Co-operation Between the States of the Niger Basin 1963 (Niamey) ……………… 433 Convention and Statute Relating to the Development of the Chad Basin, 1964 (Fort-Lamy, N’Djamena; Younde) ……………….. 436 Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters, 1972 ………………………………………… 438 Convention creating the Niger Basin Authority and Protocol Relating to the Development Fund of the Niger Basin, 1980 ………. 440 Convention for Co-operation in the Protection and Development Of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region, 1981 …………………………………………………………. 441 Protocol Concerning Co-operation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency, 1981 ………………………………………………… 442 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982 (UNCLOS) 442 Application of Treaties and Conventions on the Environment in Nigeria. ………………………………………………………………………… 447 Chapter Nine: Summary, Recommendations and Conclusion Summary of Study ……………………………………………………. Managing the Challenges of Environmental Restoration …………… Institutional Reforms ………………………………………………… …… Constitutional and Statutory Reforms as an Imperative …………… Standing to Sue ……………………………………………………………… Pre-Action Notice ……………………………………………………………. Public Access to Information …………………………………………….. Rethinking the Role of Civil Society Groups ………………………….. Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………. 451 451 455 455 463 464 468 470 473 476 Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix 477 478 480 482 482 I …………………………………………………………………… II …………………………………………………………………… III …………………………………………………………………… IV …………………………………………………………………… V …………………………………………………………………… Bibliography ………………………………………………………………….. 477