Download Memory – the persistence of learning over time

Memory – the persistence of learning over time
1. ______________________ – getting information into brain
2. _______________________ – retaining information
3. _______________________ – get information back out
Encoding Memory
 ___________________________________________ – unconscious processing of incidental information and well-learned
information; does not require effort. For example, remembering what well-learned words mean or remembering who you
saw on your way to class.
 ___________________________________________ – encoding that requires effort and conscious attention. For
example, learning material for a class.
Effortful processing requires ____________________________ (conscious repetition).
 Amount remembered depends on amount of __________________________________________________
 ___________________________________ increases retention.
 _____________________________________________________________________ – we are unlikely remember
information presented just before we must perform; we are too focused on our own upcoming performance
 Information processed _____________________________________________________ is not remembered
 Information presented _________________________________- is not remembered
 __________________________________________ – longer spaces between practice sessions leads to longer retention.
It is better to study 5 minutes a night for 10 nights than to study 50 minutes in one night. Also, studying for midterms and
final exams enhances lifelong retention.
 ___________________________ – we are most likely to remember the beginning and end of items on a list.
o Primacy –
o Recency -Encoding
 _________________________________ – thinking about the meaning of a word helps in retention
 _________________________________ (thinking about the sound of a word) and __________________
______________________________ (thinking about the appearance of a word) are less helpful in retention.
 ___________________________________________ – we are more likely to remember things that we feel relate to us.
You will remember your psychology better if you relate it to your own personal experiences.
 __________________________ (mental pictures) – words that create mental images are easier to remember.
 _________________________________________ – memory techniques that make use of visual imagery or
organizational information (King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti, peg word, method of loci)
 Our short-term memory can only remember a sequence of ________ numbers (plus or minus 2).
 ______________________________ – organizing information into meaningful units. For example, it is hard to remember
a string of 15 letters, but if they are organized into a sentence, it is much easier. Also, it is hard to remember lists of 20
numbers, but we can remember the dates many people’s birthdays (4/13/72, 11/30/71, 9/28/68, 10/3/42, 2/6/38)
 Grouping words or concepts into meaningful _____________________________ also helps with retention. This is why
books are grouped into chapters with lots of intermediate headings and sections.
Storage
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_______________________________________ – extremely short-term memory of the information taken in by our
senses. It last for few seconds, but includes a great deal of the information entering our senses.
o _______________________________ – sensory memory of a visual image; lasts a few 10ths of a second
o _______________________________ – sensory memory of auditory stimuli; lasts 3-4 seconds
__________________________________________- – memory that lasts only as long as we rehearse it. For example, a
new telephone number; limited to only the sensory information we direct our attention to.
o For numbers, limited to about 7
o For words, limited to about as much as you can say in ________ seconds.
__________________________________________ – information that is processed and stored so that it can be retrieved
much later
o Brains seem to have _________________________________________ for long-term memory
o Memory is stored in ____________________________; synapses increase and grow stronger so that less
stimulation is required to release the same amount of neurotransmitters. This is called
__________________________________________________________ (increase in a synapse’s firing potential)
o Memories stored long-term are _____________________________________________________
_____________________________ or a period of being unconscious. Short-term memories are.
o ________________________________________________ (that causes release of hormones like
_____________________) increase retention. This is possible explanation for ___________________________
(clear memory of emotionally significant events)
o ___________________________________________ (that causes the release of hormones like
__________________) can corrode neural connections and even destroy the hippocampus
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______________________ – loss of memory
________________________ memory – retention without conscious recollection (skills), like how to tie shoes
________________________ memory – memory of facts and experiences, like knowing the functions of the
parts of the brain
_________________________ is the temporary processing center for storing explicit memories; once formed, the
memories are stored in the frontal and temporal lobes of the cortex
The ____________________________ is involved in forming implicit memories.
Retrieval
 We can _______________________ more than we can _____________________.
 Once we’ve learned something and forgotten it, it takes ________________ time to relearn it.
 Recognition is easier than recall because it provides __________________________________ or hints that help us
remember where the information is stored in our memory.
 _____________________________ – the activation of particular associations in our memory; is often unconscious. For
example, we may suddenly remember something that we thought we had forgotten when we smell or taste something
associated with the memory. In this case, the smell is priming our memory
 __________________________________ – we are more likely to remember something if we learn it in the same context.
For example, you will likely do better on a psychology test if you take it in this room.
 _____________________________________________ – we are more likely to remember something if we are in the
same psychological state (happy, sad, etc) that we were in when we learned it.
 Memories are ________________________________ – that is, if we are in a good mood, we are more likely to recall
events as positive. If we are in a bad mood, we are more likely to recall events as negative. This is true even if we are
recalling the SAME event in two different states of mind. For example, lets say you went on a family vacation to the beach
and there were tons of mosquitoes and your parents never let you out of their sight, and the weather and beach was
beautiful. If someone asks you about your vacation later, what aspects of it you will remember (the bad or good ones)
depends on your current mood.
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Mood-congruent memories explain how ______________________ can easily become a downward spiral. A person in a
depressed mood recalls or interprets events negatively, thus leaving them feeling even worse.
Forgetting – Forgetting is an important adaptation. If we couldn’t forget most of the information that enters our senses, we would
be distracted most of the time.
Why do we forget?
1. ______________________________________ – information never enters long-term memory; usually because we didn’t
make an effort to pay attention and rehearse the information
2. _____________________________________ – memories that are not used and rehearsed are forgotten (do you
remember freshman biology?)
 The “forgetting curve” (also known as the __________________________________________) indicates that over
50% of what we learn is forgotten quickly if not used, but the remainder sticks with us for a long time. For example, if
you are taking Spanish and then don’t take it in college, you will likely forget most of what you learned by your
sophomore year. However, the information you still remember in two years will stick with your for most of the rest of
your life!
3. __________________________________ – inability to “locate” memories; tip of the tongue phenomenon; commonly
associated with memory loss in old age.
 Interference – learning that interferes with retrieving other information
o ______________________________________ (forward acting interference) – the disruptive effect of prior
learning on the recall of new information. For example, if I were to give you a list of 5 words to memorize, it
would be easy. But if I followed it with a new list of 5 words every hour, it would get harder and harder.
o ___________________________________________ (backward-acting interference) – the disruptive effect
of new learning on the recall of old information. This is common in AP Biology. Once I give students the
minute details of a process, they tend to forget the simple basics they understood well freshman year.
 Motivated Forgetting (______________________) – it has been suggested that people repress memories that
are painful or that conflict with their self-image. For example, if I view myself as a kind and caring person, I may
forget about the cruel things I did to my sister as a child.
Memory Construction – Do we create false memories?
 ______________________________________________________ – If we are primed with misleading information, we
are likely to incorporate it into our memory; As we retell stories, we will fill make guesses about memory gaps. These
guesses then become part of our memory.
 _______________________________________________ – Attributing an event to the wrong source. This could be
attributing an imagined event to real life or attributing a story read in a book to your own childhood. Ronald Reagan story
How can we tell if memories are true or false?
The hippocampus is equally active when a person recounts true and false memories. However, other areas (such as association areas)
are only active when a person recounts a true memory. Scientists are currently working on ways to use a functional MRI to identify
when one is telling a lie!
Eye Witness Accounts
 Self-assurance and confidence are NOT good indicators of how likely one’s memories are to be true.
 Hypnotically refreshed memories are susceptible to the misinformation effect (from leading questions) and are not more
likely to be true than other memories.
 Eyewitness testimony is most likely to be accurate if a neutral person who asks non-leading questions performs the
interview.