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Introduction The Tudor monarchs were one of the most well known and powerful families in Britain. They reigned from 1485-1603 and took their name from Owen Tudor, who was part of the Welsh royal family. The first Tudor king was Henry VII who became king after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth in August 1485 which ended the Wars of the Roses. The battles between two rival families, the House of York led by Richard III and the House of Lancaster led by Henry Tudor for a claim to the throne were known as the Wars of The Roses. Each House represented a rose; the House of York a white rose and the House of Lancaster a red rose. The wars began with the Battle of St. Albans in 1455, and ended with the Battle of Bosworth in 1485 (30 years of fighting). After the war had ended Henry Tudor was crowned King Henry VII. His next hope was to marry Elizabeth of York and stop any more wars between the two families. Their marriage united the two families creating the Tudor Rose which consisted of the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster. The Tudor Rose The Tudor monarchs ruled England, Wales and part of Ireland and consisted of 5 Kings and Queens: Henry VII (1485 - 1509) Henry VIII (1509 - 1547) Edward VI (1547 - 1553) Mary I (1553 - 1558) Elizabeth I (1558 - 1603) And Lady Jane Grey who ruled for only nine days! These monarchs altogether ruled for 118 years! Henry VIII came to the throne aged 17 and was the most famous Tudor king. He was born on 28th June 1491 at Greenwich Palace, London, and was the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He was a bright student who enjoyed playing the harp and lute, writing music and poetry. When his elder brother, Arthur, sadly died on 2nd April 1502 aged 15, Henry became Prince of Wales and heir to the throne. Henry became king after his father died on 21st April 1509. He was tall and handsome with red hair and bright blue - grey eyes. At first he was a popular young king who preferred to hunt, write music and play sports than run the country; this he left to his trusted advisors. During his reign Henry fought successful wars against France and Scotland, built up the English Navy and wrote books on religion. At the end of his reign Henry was a selfish tyrant with failing health who was feared by many people. This project is about Henry VIII, the most well known Tudor monarch who was best remembered for having 6 wives and breaking with the Church of Rome. Henry VIII The Tudor Family Tree Young Prince Henry Prince Henry was born on 28th June 1491 at Greenwich Palace, and was the second son of King Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He spent his childhood in the royal palaces of London and was very spoiled by his grandmother, mother and servants whilst his father was often away visiting noblemen. As a boy, Henry had a very strong temper and expected people to obey him. He even had his own ‘whipping boy’ who was punished every time Henry did something wrong. Henry was a bright student who loved dancing, writing poetry and playing music. His early education was supervised by his grandmother, Margaret Beaufort, and he was taught a wide range of lessons including languages, grammar, theology, history, rhetoric, logic, philosophy, arithmetic, literature, geometry, music, astronomy, navigation and cartography. Religious studies were very important as it was thought that Henry would take a secular role in the Catholic Church, probably as Archbishop of Canterbury. He also loved sports and particularly enjoyed riding, hunting, jousting, archery and playing tennis. Henry’s closest friends were his cousins, William Compton and Charles Brandon, and a young noble called Henry Norris. Charles was his favourite companion as they were both great athletes who loved sports. During his early life, Henry was not given many duties as these were given to Arthur who was being prepared to be king. Although when Arthur married the Spanish princess, Catherine of Aragon on 14th November 1501, Henry aged 10 wearing a golden robe escorted the bride to St. Pauls Cathedral. On 2nd April, 1502 Arthur tragically died at Ludlow Castle of the ‘sweating sickness’ resulting in Henry becoming heir to the throne (just a few months before his 11th birthday). As Henry was going to be king he was no longer expected to take religious vows. Less then a year after Arthur’s death, Henry’s mother, Elizabeth of York, died on 11th February 1503. After the death of his first son and wife, Henry VII was worried that Prince Henry would try to obtain too much power and kept a very close eye on him. He was kept in his apartments and was only allowed the company of his tutors, servants and guards. It was claimed by Reginald Pole, Prince Henry’s cousin, that King Henry VII disliked Henry and had only favoured Arthur. After many disagreements between Henry and his father, Henry VII sadly died on 21st April 1509 passing the crown to his son. Henry VIII as a boy Young King Henry Henry was crowned king of England and Wales on 24th June 1509; when he was 17 years old! He had learned the ways of kingship before his father died and was left a fortune from taxes collected under his father’s reign. Henry was tall and handsome and enjoyed spending money on luxurious clothes and fine palaces. He wore embroidered robes decorated with roses made from rubies and diamonds. Many people believed Henry would be a more generous ruler than his father. As his first act in power, Henry became popular by getting rid of many of his Father’s old advisors. These included two tax collectors, Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley, who were both executed in 1510. Thomas More, Henry’s friend and advisor wrote that Henry’s reign would be “an end of sadness, the beginning of joy.” Young King Henry Although a popular young king, Henry was lazy and found running the country boring. He left this to his advisors whilst he preferred to enjoy himself, spending his time playing sports, hunting, jousting, dancing, writing music and eating too much at banquets. During the first part of Henry’s reign, Henry chose Thomas Wolsey to be his chief minister and govern England. Thomas Wolsey was the son of a butcher from Ipswich in Suffolk who had entered the Catholic Church and had become Henry VII’s chaplain. As Henry VIII had known Wolsey all his life he trusted him and was happy to let him run the country. In return Henry helped Wolsey to rise higher in the Catholic Church. In 1514, Henry persuaded the Pope to make Wolsey Archbishop of York and then in 1515 he was made a cardinal (the top rank of a churchman). In 1515 Henry made Wolsey ‘Lord Chancellor’, which meant that Wolsey was running most of the state matters and even answering the king’s letters! Cardinal Wolsey Thomas Wolsey was very clever and extremely greedy. He used his power to become one of the richest men in England. Wolsey demanded new taxes, and many nobles didn’t like him as they feared he would take away their old powers. For many years Wolsey faithfully served the king even arranging foreign allies to make Henry important in Europe. Cardinal Wolsey built himself several palaces, including Hampton Court Palace which he was later forced to give Henry when he was losing favour with the king. When built Hampton Court Palace was more impressive than any of the other palaces at that time. Hampton Court Palace Henry VIII was a loyal Catholic. Early in his reign, he wrote a book condemning the teachings of Martin Luther which was published in 1521. Martin Luther was a German church reformer who didn’t like the way the Catholic Church was run and protested about corruption within the Catholic Church. Henry was given the title ‘Defender of the Faith’ by the Pope for writing the book. On modern British coins the initials F.D around the monarch’s head still stand for this title. The Six Wives of Henry VIII During his reign, Henry married 6 times as he desperately wanted a male heir. His first three wives were claimed to be genuine love matches and he was happily married to his first wife Catherine of Aragon for the first 20 years of his reign. Henry married his other 5 wives within the last 11 years of his life and he is the most married monarch in history. The fates of his wives can be remembered in this rhyme: ‘divorced, beheaded, died; divorced beheaded, survived! Henry and his 6 wives Catherine of Aragon Catherine of Aragon was Henry’s first wife. She was born on 16th December 1485 and was a Spanish princess, the daughter of King Ferdinand Lady Isabella I of Spain. Catherine was beautiful, well educated, fun loving and a devout Catholic. She was descended into the English royal house, through her great grandmother Katherine of Lancaster who was the great granddaughter of Edward III of England. In 1501, Catherine was married to Henry’s older brother, Arthur, to form an Anglo-Spanish alliance. They were married at St Paul’s Cathedral and Henry was Catherine’s escort. Within six months of marriage, Arthur died of ‘sweating sickness’ and Catherine was left a widow. Catherine remained in England and on 11th June 1509 aged 23 she married Henry. The wedding took place seven weeks after the death of Henry’s father. Special permission for the wedding had to be given by the Pope as Henry was marrying his brother’s widow. Henry and Catherine were married in a private ceremony at Greenwich Church. The marriage was initially to keep the Anglo-Spanish alliance, but they both genuinely loved each other. The coronation of Henry and Catherine took place on Sunday 24th June 1509 at Westminster Abbey by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The coronation was followed by an extravagant banquet in Westminster Hall and new knights of Bath were created in honour of the coronation. Catherine was a popular queen providing the poor with money, clothes, food and fuel in winter. During their marriage Catherine gave birth to six children between 1510 and 1518 including three sons, but only one daughter Princess Mary born on 18th February 1516 survived. Henry desperately wanted a son to succeed him. As Catherine was now nearly too old to have any more children Henry thought God was punishing him and Catherine and they should never have married. Princess Mary In 1526 Henry had fallen in love with one of the ladies of court, Anne Boleyn. He wanted Anne to be his mistress, but she refused wanting Henry to make her his wife. Henry wanted to marry Anne, but first he had to divorce Catherine. Catherine refused to divorce Henry and was supported by her powerful nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. Henry ordered Wolsey to arrange for the Pope to annul his marriage on the grounds that as Catherine was his sister-in-law it was an unlawful union. The Pope refused the divorce and said the divorce must be heard in Rome. At this time the Pope was under the control of the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V, who opposed the annulment. Henry was furious he didn’t get his divorce and blamed Wolsey, even though it wasn’t his fault. Wolsey was arrested for treason but fell ill and died in 1530 before he could be executed. As he could not get a divorce, Henry broke with the Church of Rome in 1533 and passed the Act of Supremacy declaring he was the Head of the English Church. This meant he could now divorce from Catherine. He secretly married Anne Boleyn four months before his divorce from Catherine was finalised. Catherine continued to reject the divorce and her new title Princess Dowager (in recognition of her position as his brother’s widow). She referred to herself as Henry’s only lawfully-wedded wife and England’s only rightful Queen Consort. Her faithful servants continued to call her by this title. Catherine was banished from court and forced to live in much reduced conditions. Her daughter Mary was also banished from court and was known as Lady Mary as she was classed as illegitimate. Catherine was denied access to Mary although they secretly corresponded with each other. Catherine and Mary were offered better quarters and to be able to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as his new Queen, but they both wouldn’t. Catherine died on 7th January 1536 at Kimbolton House, Cambridgeshire. Rumours suggested that she was poisoned by Anne or Henry, but it is thought that she died of cancer. She was buried in Peterborough Abbey with the ceremony due to a Princess Dowager of Wales and Arthur’s widow but not as Queen of England. Henry did not allow Mary to attend the funeral. He also did not attend the funeral and showed no signs of mourning. Young Catherine Old Catherine Anne Boleyn Anne Boleyn was Henry’s second wife and the marriage lasted for just three years. Anne was the daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn and Lady Elizabeth Howard. The exact date of Anne’s birth has been disputed although it is likely that she was born between 1501 and 1507. Anne spent some of her childhood in the Netherlands at the court of Archduchess Margaret, and later in France where she was maid-of-honour to Queen Mary, Henry’s sister who had married the King of France. When the King of France died Mary returned to England but Anne remained in France as maid-of-honour to the new queen, Queen Claude. Anne received a good education in France and also learnt French culture and etiquette. She was particularly interested in fashion and religious philosophy and she also enjoyed singing, music and dancing. During her time in France Anne became a devout Christian. In 1521 or early 1522 Anne returned home to England where she was appointed as lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine. Anne was beautiful with long dark hair and dark eyes, lively, intelligent and sophisticated. She had many admirers at court, including King Henry. Henry had taken many mistresses including Anne’s sister Mary when Queen Catherine could not give him a son. When Henry began to fall in love with Anne she was already secretly engaged to Henry Percy, the son and heir of the Earl of Northumberland. Henry ordered Wolsey to put an end to this relationship and Anne was briefly banned from court and sent to her family home, Hever Castle in Kent. Henry sent Anne many gifts and letters expressing his love for her and hoped that when she returned to court she would be his mistress. Hever Castle In 1526 Henry was deeply infatuated with Anne and was desperate for her to be his mistress, but Anne resisted, wanting the King to marry her. Anne was very unpopular at court as Catherine had many supporters. The King loved Anne and he would eat alone with her and give her expensive gifts. By 1530 Anne was openly honoured by the King at court. She would sit with the King at banquets and hunts while Catherine was virtually ignored. Henry secretly married Anne in January 1533, four months before his divorce from Catherine was finalised, when Anne was already pregnant. Anne was crowned Queen Consort on 1st June 1533 in a magnificent ceremony at Westminster Abbey which was followed by an extravagant banquet. On 7th September 1533 Anne gave birth to a baby girl, Princess Elizabeth. Anne feared that Catherine’s daughter Mary would threaten Elizabeth’s position, so Henry sent Mary to Hatfield House to serve Elizabeth as one of her ladies-in-waiting. Elizabeth was sent to Hatfield House to live as Henry thought that the country air would be better for her. Anne loved Elizabeth very much and regularly visited her. Princess Elizabeth Anne and Henry were happily married for a while although he began to lose interest in her. He disliked how Anne could stand up for herself and her short temper. After the birth of Elizabeth, Anne had two stillborn children and miscarried a male child in 1536. As Anne could not provide Henry with a son he declared that his marriage was cursed and was the product of witchcraft. On 2nd May 1536, Anne was arrested and taken to the Tower of London charged with treason. She was charged with adultery with her own brother and four commoners. All of the men were tried and convicted of treason by Anne’s uncle the Duke of Norfolk. They were executed on 17th May 1536. Anne was beheaded on 19th May 1536 and was the first English Queen to be publicly executed. Henry had given permission for Anne to be beheaded by a sword as Anne was terrified of the axe. An executioner was brought from France to kill her swiftly. Anne was buried in the Chapel of St. Vincula at the Tower of London. Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Jane Seymour was Henry’s third wife. She was the daughter of Sir John Seymour of Wiltshire and Margery Wentworth and was born between 1507 and 1509. The Seymour’s were a well respected and old noble family. Jane was not as educated as Catherine and Anne and could only read and write her name, although she was skilled in needlework and household management. In 1532 Jane became maid-of-honour to Catherine and then served Anne when she became Henry’s second wife. Jane was beautiful with pale skin and blonde hair and had a calm and gentle manner. It was reported that Henry showed signs of interest in Jane in February 1536. Jane and Henry were betrothed on 20th May 1536, the day after Anne Boleyn’s execution. They married ten days later. Jane was publicly proclaimed as Queen on 4th June 1536 although she was never crowned. She was a submissive wife and was a strict and formal Queen. In early 1537 Jane became pregnant and on 12th October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace she gave birth to a son, Prince Edward, Henry’s heir. Prince Edward Jane was seriously ill after the birth of Edward and died twelve days later of septicaemia on 24th October at Hampton Court. She was buried at St. George’s Chapel at Windsor Castle. Henry was distraught and wore black for three months after Jane died. Henry did not marry again for three years after Jane’s death, and because of his love for her for giving him a son he ordered that he was to be buried beside her when he died. Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Anne of Cleves was born on 22nd September 1515in the small north German state of Cleves and was Henry’s fourth wife. She was the second daughter of John III, ruler of the Duchy of Cleves, and his wife Maria. Anne received no formal education and could only read and write in German. She was skilled in needlework and had a gentle manner. After mourning Jane, Henry began to look for a new wife. The break with the Church of Rome had left England isolated from much of Europe, and his ministers wanted him to have a bride who could secure an alliance. Henry wanted his bride to be desirable so he had portraits of suitable women sent back to him. Thomas Cromwell, Henry’s Lord Chancellor, wanted England to form an alliance with the Protestant nation of Germany and wanted Henry to marry a German princess. Two suitable German princesses were chosen and Hans Holbein, the most famous of the Tudor court painters, was sent in 1539 to the court of the Duke of Cleves to paint Amelia and Anne. From the paintings, Henry chose Anne to be his next wife and a marriage treaty was signed on 4th October 1539 even though they hadn’t even met each other. Anne arrived in England in December and Henry was horrified and disgusted. He disliked her personality and found her ugly. He thought she had the face of a ‘Flanders Mare’. Henry did not want to marry Anne but he could not get out of the marriage treaty and they were married on 6th January 1540 at the Royal Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London by Archbishop Cranmer. They were divorced six months later in July 1540 and Anne remained in England. Henry felt that the marriage to Anne had made him look a fool and he blamed Thomas Cromwell who was arrested and beheaded. Henry was grateful that Anne agreed to the annulment of the marriage and they became good friends. Henry called her ‘the King’s Beloved Sister’ and he often invited her to court. He gave her a generous income and several homes, including Hever Castle. Anne died at Hever Castle on 16th July 1557 and was the last of Henry’s wives to die. Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Howard was born between 1520 and 1525 and was Henry’s fifth wife. She was the daughter of Lord Edmund and Joyce Culpeper, the niece of the Duke of Norfolk and 1st cousin of Anne Boleyn. Catherine came from a powerful family and came to court as a lady-in-waiting to Anne of Cleves. She was beautiful, kind, lively and flirtatious and quickly caught the eye of the king. Henry soon became besotted with Catherine and would give her fine clothes, jewels and land. He called her his “Rose without a thorn”. Catherine was thirty years younger than Henry and did not love the old, bloating king, but she did love how he spoiled her. They married on 28th July 1540, just sixteen days after Henry’s divorce from Anne. Catherine was more attracted to men of her own age and had many lovers. After seventeen months of marriage to Henry she was arrested and accused of adultery and treason. Catherine was beheaded at the Tower of London when she was just 21 years old. Her body was buried in an unmarked grave in the chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula where her cousin Anne Boleyn was also buried. Catherine Howard Catherine Parr Catherine Parr was born in 1512 and was Henry’s sixth and final wife. She was the daughter of Sir Thomas Parr and Maud Green who were both at court during the early reign of Henry VIII. Her mother, Maud, was lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine of Aragon and her father, Sir Thomas, was Sheriff of Northamptonshire, Master of the Wards and comptroller to Henry VIII. Catherine was well educated and was fluent in French, Italian and Latin. Catherine had been widowed twice and was in a relationship with Thomas Seymour, the brother of Jane Seymour, when Henry took a liking to her. She could not refuse the attentions of the King and they were married on 12th July 1543 at Hampton Court Palace. Catherine was the first English Queen Consort to be also Queen of Ireland. Brought up as a Catholic, Catherine was deeply religious although she was interested in the new Protestant faith. It was thought that Catherine had strong reforming convictions which brought her into conflict with Bishop Stephen Gardiner and Chancellor Thomas Wriothesley. They tried to turn Henry against her and a warrant for her arrest was drawn up. Catherine managed to reconcile with Henry and she survived. Catherine was around 31 years old and Henry was 52 years old when they married. Due to Henry’s failing health, Catherine acted more as a nurse than a wife. She bled his legs to relieve the pain he got in them and regularly read to him while he was confined to bed. Henry was very fond of Catherine and liked the calmness she brought to the royal household. Catherine was a loyal wife and loving stepmother bringing all three of Henry’s children back to court and giving them a good education and kindness. She was partially responsible for reconciling Henry with his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, and developed a good relationship with Edward. Catherine was patron of the arts and music and in 1545 her book ‘Prayers or Meditations’ became the first book to be published by an English Queen under her own name. Her second book ‘The Lamentations of a Sinner’, discussing Christian behaviour was published after Henry died. After Henry died on 28th January 1547, Catherine was able to marry Thomas Seymour. She became pregnant and following the birth of their daughter, Mary Seymour, Catherine died six days later on 5th September 1548 at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire. She died of puerperal fever and was buried in the chapel at Sudeley Castle. Catherine Parr Henry and the Royal Navy Henry had a keen interest in the navy and due to his achievements in building up the navy and fortifying obvious landing places he was known as ‘Father of the English Navy’. During his reign Henry invested heavily in the navy increasing its size from 5 warships, inherited from his father, to around 58 warships including his two favourites The Mary Rose and Henri Grace a Dieu (Great Harry). Henry established Royal dockyards at Deptford and Woolwich. Deptford and Woolwich were very close to Greenwich so Henry could often visit and see his new ships being built. The warships built carried much heavier cannon, and the great cannon could fire ‘broadside’ which meant all the guns along one side of the ship could fire at once. Watertight ‘gun ports’ with hinges were invented so that in battle the cannon could poke out of the side of the ship whilst they were being fired. Navigational aids such as lighthouses, buoys and beacons were developed and in 1540 Henry granted Portsmouth harbour official status as a naval dockyard. In 1546 Henry established the Navy Board and created the Office of Admirality, which was in charge of daily administration of the navy. Henri Grace a Dieu (Great Harry) Henri Grace a Dieu (nicknamed ‘Great Harry’) was built at Woolwich dockyard from 1512-1514 and was the largest ship built by Henry VIII. The ship was 165 feet long, weighed 10001500 tons, had five decks and had more than 200 bronze and iron cannons. The Henri Grace a Dieu was one of the first ships to carry guns that fired through ports along her side to allow a ‘broadside’, and when launched was the largest and most powerful warship in Europe. The ship could hold 400 soldiers, 260 sailors and 40 gunners but saw little action. She sailed at the Battle of Solent against Francis I of France, but was otherwise used as a diplomatic vessel occasionally sailing with sails of gold cloth. The great ship was accidentally destroyed by fire in 1553 at her berth in Woolwich. Henri Grace a Dieu The Mary Rose The Mary Rose was built at Portsmouth between 1509 and 1511 and was named after Henry’s sister, Mary Tudor, and the rose, the Tudor emblem. She was a smaller ship than Henri Grace a Dieu and was the second most powerful ship in Henry’s fleet. The Mary Rose was a fine sailing ship and one of Henry’s favourites. She could hold a crew of 200 sailors, 185 soldiers and 30 gunners. The Mary Rose was a carrack warship and was one of the first warships able to fire a full ‘broadside’ of cannons. The ship was originally equipped with 78 guns, although this increased to 91 guns after she was rebuilt in 1536. On 10th August 1512 commanded by Sir Edward Howard, the Mary Rose was the flagship of an English fleet of 50 ships that attacked the French at Brest in Brittany. The Mary Rose crippled the French flagship, Marie la Cordeliere, but was damaged herself killing or injuring 300 of the crew. After the death of Edward Howard in 1513, the Mary Rose was commanded by Edward’s brother, Thomas Howard. He first sailed the Mary Rose to Newcastle to fight against the Scots who had invaded England at the Battle of Flodden, and then in 1514 sailed the ship back to France to attack some towns and villages near Cherbourg. The Mary Rose was used as the flagship again in 1522 when the French port of Morles was captured. The Mary Rose was docked in Portsmouth in 1527 to undergo repairs and in 1536 she was rebuilt again. Henry attacked France again in 1543 and 1544 resulting in a French fleet setting sail for England in 1545. The French could not get into Portsmouth as it was heavily fortified and so entered the Solent Channel between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. On 19th July 1545 watched by Henry the English fleet came out of Portsmouth and attacked the French from a long range. Having outrun the rest of the fleet, the Mary Rose waited for support but a sudden gust of wind caused her to sink killing most of her crew. It is thought that the ship tilted in the wind and as the gun ports were too near the waterline the water rushed in causing the ship to sink. Henry tried to recover the Mary Rose from the bottom of the sea, but she wasn’t raised until 1982 by the Mary Rose Trust. The Mary Rose Battles and Wars As a bold and powerful king, Henry wanted the fame and glory of war. Henry’s main target was France as like some previous kings he claimed to be the rightful ruler of France. During his reign Henry went to war with France many times. After making an alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, Henry agreed to attack France. In 1513, Henry sailed across the English Channel to Calais to conquer territory. After a small battle, won by Henry, the towns of Therouanne and Tournai quickly surrendered. The battle was known as the Battle of Spurs due to how quickly the French cavalry spurred their horses to retreat. Whilst Henry was fighting in France, his brother-in-law King James IV of Scotland invaded northern England in support of France. The English defeated the Scots in the battle known as the Battle of Flodden and more than 10,000 Scots were killed including King James IV. The war against France had cost Henry a lot of money and gained him little land, but he felt it had been a triumph and shown that he was a courageous king. In 1514 Wolsey persuaded Henry to make peace with France and an agreement was reached. The French gave Henry a lot of gold and he was allowed to keep the French town of Tournai. For the next eight years Wolsey prevented any more wars and in 1520 he organized a meeting near Calais between Henry and Francis I of Spain. Francis I became king of Spain in 1515 and the meeting was arranged to increase the bond of friendship between the two kings following the Anglo-French treaty of 1518. Francis I Henry sailed in his warship Henri Grace a Dieu to France and took virtually his entire court with him. The two rival kings were determined to impress and outshine each other and set up camps near Calais between the villages of Ardres and Guines. Richly decorated tents were put up and there were elaborate feasts, jousting and games. The tents and clothing were decorated with jewels and contained so much cloth of gold that the site of the meeting was named the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry and Francis agreed in principal to an alliance although within two years England and France were at war again. Field of the Cloth of Gold At 50 years old in 1541 Henry was named King of Ireland and he wanted to extend his power to the rest of Britain by trying to overcome Scotland. The Scottish king, James V, was Henry’s nephew but he still supported the French and refused to sign a peace treaty with England. Henry wanted James to break from the Catholic Church as he had done and meet him in York. When James V refused to do this and did not meet Henry in York, Henry sent his troops into Scotland resulting in the Battle of Solway Moss. The battle of Solway Moss took place in 1542 in the north of England and ended with Henry’s army beating the Scots and James V dying three weeks later leaving two week old Mary as queen. Henry had worked out a new treaty with the Scots in 1543 in which his son Prince Edward would marry Queen Mary. This was rejected by the Scots and Henry was furious. He sent an army into Scotland and attacked the towns of Leith and Edinburgh. Henry was getting old and was in poor health but he wanted one last attack on France. His army landed at Calais in July 1544 and by September he had captured Boulogne. In 1545 France and Scotland both took revenge and sent their armies to attack England. First the Scots defeated the English army at Ancrum Moor, and then in the summer of 1545 a French fleet tried to attack Portsmouth but ended up landing at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight where they were defeated and forced to retreat. The French attack was known as the Battle of the Solent as it took place in the Solent Channel between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. A combination of strong winds and tides and Henry’s powerful navy stopped the fleet from advancing. The battle was inconclusive, although Henry did suffer after he watched his favourite ship, the Mary Rose sink after tilting in the gales. Henry made peace with France in June 1546. The agreement entitled Henry to keep Boulogne for eight years and receive a pension of 95,000 crowns for the duration of his lifetime. His battles and wars had cost a lot of lives and a considerable amount of money. The Break with Rome and English Reformation England was a Roman Catholic country when Henry first became king. The head of the church was Pope Clement VII and Henry was a devout Catholic. At the beginning of Henry’s reign Martin Luther, a German monk, had protested against corruption within the Catholic Church and started a religious movement called the Reformation which led to the start of the Protestant faith. Henry defended the Catholic faith and after writing a book in 1521 attacking Martin Luther he was given the title ‘Defender of the Faith’ by the Pope. Some people in England though disliked the Catholic faith. They thought that many priests were greedy and ignorant and hated having to pay taxes to the local priests. Henry turned against the Catholic Church when the Pope would not grant him a divorce from Catherine of Aragon so that he could marry Anne Boleyn. Henry was furious with the Pope for not agreeing the divorce as he was desperate for an heir, and so turned to Parliament to decide the divorce. The result was a series of acts that brought about the English Reformation and the break with Rome. Henry thought that if he controlled the Church of England, he could give himself a divorce. In 1532, Henry demanded that priests swear loyalty to him as ‘Supreme Head of the English Church’. Henry’s Lord Chancellor, Thomas More, refused to agree with this and resigned. Henry appointed Thomas Cromwell as his new Lord Chancellor and also appointed Thomas Cranmer as the new Archbishop of Canterbury. Thomas Cranmer was a quiet and loyal scholar who was interested in reforming the church. In 1533, Cranmer decreed that Henry’s marriage to Catherine never legally existed and he crowned Anne queen. Thomas Cromwell was an efficient minister and in 1534 he encouraged Parliament to pass a series of laws which would break Henry from the Catholic Church. One law stopped the payment of taxes to the Pope and another law stated that Anne was the rightful queen and her children would succeed to the throne (Act of Succession). Parliament also passed the Act of Supremacy in 1534 which recognised Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England. All important people had to swear an oath accepting this or they would be executed. Thomas More and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were both beheaded for not swearing the oath. Another effect of the English Protestant Reformation was the dissolution of monasteries in which Roman Catholic abbeys, monasteries and convents across England, Wales and Ireland were closed down. They were mostly sold off to nobles who supported the king and raised lots of money for the state. One of Henry’s closest friends was given Titchfield Abbey in Hampshire in 1537 and renamed it Place House. A ruin of a monastery The dissolution of the monasteries had a huge effect on the English people as some nuns and monks had run schools, cared for the poor and sick and provided hospitality for travellers, especially in the north of England. People were angry and many protests took place. The first protests took place in Lancashire in October 1536 and spread to Cumbria and Yorkshire. The rebellion was called the ‘Pilgrimage of Grace’ and was led by Robert Aske who wanted the power of the Pope and the monasteries restored. Henry promised to pardon the rebels if they stopped protesting, although nearly 200 rebels were executed and Aske was hung in chains from the walls of York Castle and left to die. In 1539 Henry ordered Cromwell to organize the printing of the Bible in English and ordered every church to buy one. By 1543 Henry had ordered Parliament to pass a law forbidding women, apprentices and labourers to read the Bible. First English Bible