Download non-verbal communication: stripped

NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: STRIPPED
NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
BODY LANGUAGE
FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
folding arms/crossing legs = defensive
raising eyebrows = shock/surprise
touching face = awkward/self-conscious
smile = pleased/happy
stroking chin = thinking
wink = playful/friendly/flirtatious
The specification only refers to ‘body language’ and ‘facial expressions’ but does not give specific examples that you
should know about. This means that questions are likely to ask you to give your own examples. Make sure you have a
couple of examples of body language and a couple of examples of facial expressions. As well as giving examples (e.g.
crossed arms), you should also be able to say what the gesture communicates (e.g. being angry).
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF NVC
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY…
We learn behaviours from others.
We identify with certain others because we want to be
like them.
People we identify with are called role models.
We observe our role models behaving in certain ways.
We imitate behaviours that we observe.
We are more likely to imitate behaviours that we see
being vicariously reinforced.
If an imitated behaviour is reinforced directly, we are
likely to repeat it.
If an imitated behaviour is punished then we are less
likely to repeat it.
…APPLIED TO NVC
We learn body language and facial expressions from
others.
We identify with people we want to be able to
communicate with or communicate like.
Role models may include peers, family members and
people on the media.
We observe certain gestures, movements and the way the
face is used to convey messages.
We copy these examples of non-verbal behaviour by
reproducing them.
If someone gets attention for smiling, a baby may learn
smile to get this reward.
If a person is better understood by using hand gestures,
or if certain facial expressions get them out of a difficult
situation – then this is reward enough to use them again.
If a child is told off for a rude gesture then they are
unlikely to make that gesture again.
If you are asked to describe the social learning theory of non-verbal communication in the exam then make sure you
do more than just go through the key terms. Social learning theory can be used to explain lots of behaviours so you
need to make it relevant to non-verbal communication – therefore you need to include examples like those on the
right hand side of the above table. If you just describe social learning theory but not do apply it specifically to nonverbal communication then this will limit your marks.
CULTURAL VARIATIONS IN NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR
Different cultures use different body language or facial expressions to convey different messages. This supports
social learning theory. It shows that how we communicate as a lot to do with what we learn from others in our
culture or society.
For example,
 making an ‘O’ shape with the thumb and index finger means OK in the UK but is offensive in Sardinia
 wobbling the head means someone is unsure in the UK but it means ‘yes’ in India.
If you get asked for an example of a cultural variation in non-verbal communication then you need to make sure that
you refer to at least two different cultures (e.g. two different countries) in your answer. Candidates often talk about a
gesture used in another country without explicitly comparing it what is used here in the UK. The examiner probably
knows what a gesture means in the UK but it still your job to draw a comparison.
A cultural variation can be one sign that means something different in different countries or societies (like the
examples above). However, it can also be where a different gesture/expression is used in different cultures but to
communicate the same thing e.g. head nodding means ‘yes’ in the UK but head wobbling means ‘yes’ in India.
CRITICISMS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
CRITICISM
Why do behaviours continue after they have been
punished?
Why is it so hard to learn new behaviours from others?
Why don’t siblings (who share role models and
environments) behave more similarly?
Where do behaviours first originate from to be copied?
How can people imitate behaviours they have not
observed?
EXAMPLE
Children often continue rude gestures – like poking out
their tongue - even when they have been told off.
Social skills training tends not to work very well.
Two brothers may use very different gestures e.g. one
may be aggressive but one may be more passive.
How did smiling come to mean happiness in the first
place – even before it was passed down?
Blind people use a range of facial expressions but could
not possibly have observed them.
Most of the above can be explained by arguing NVC is natural – as argued by evolutionary theory.
EVOLUTIONARY THEORY
 Non-verbal behaviours are natural and instinctive.
 We are born with the ability to communicate non-verbally – it may need to develop but it will do so naturally.
 The behaviours are there because of evolution – certain behaviours have been passed on because they are
adaptive.
 Some non-verbal behaviours are to do with survival e.g. baring teeth or clenching fists (aggressive), or smiling or
backing away (to avoid conflict).
 Some non-verbal behaviours are to do with reproduction e.g. licking lips, fluttering eye lashes, stroking own body
may be ways of appearing attractive so that an individual can secure a mate.
 To conclude, non-verbal communication can be used to ensure a person survives long enough to reproduce.
The concepts of ‘survival’ and ‘reproduction’ are listed separately on the specification so you can get questions on
these rather than on the evolutionary theory in general. Remember, you will need to show how non-verbal
communication is important in helping us to survive – by avoiding injury or death. You will also need to show how it
is important in helping us to reproduce – by first attracting other people and then getting them to mate with us (and
hopefully stay with us!)
YUKI ET AL’S (2007) EXPERIMENT INTO CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN INTERPRETING FACIAL EXPRESSIONS
Procedure
Hypothesis: that different cultures pay attention to different facial cues when meeting and talking to each other.
Experiment used to investigate the idea that in Japanese culture eyes are more important when expressing and
reading emotions compared to America where people tend to read emotions on faces by looking at the mouth.
Cross-cultural research involved investigating American students and Japanese students.
Questionnaires were completed where participants were instructed to rate on a scale of 1(very sad) to 9 (very
happy) the emotional expressions of 6 different computer generated faces or emoticons, with combinations of happy
and sad eyes and mouths.
Please note that a number of methods were used in this one study. It was an experiment because it was set up. Within
the experiment, a questionnaire was used as a way of collecting the data. The experiment was done on two different
nationalities of students so it was also cross-cultural.
Results





In line with the hypothesis, the two cultures responded differently to the emoticons.
The Japanese participants gave the highest ratings when the eyes were happy.
The American participants gave the highest ratings when the mouths were happy.
The results showed that there are cultural differences in how emotions are expressed and interpreted in faces.
The conclusion was that non-verbal communication is affected by upbringing and cultural experiences.
how happy
is the face?
JAPAN
USA
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
^^
EYES happy
MOUTH neutral
^^
neutral
sad
happy
sad
neutral
happy
sad
neutral
sad
happy
EMOTICONS
Try not to over-simplify the findings. For example, it would be wrong to say things like ‘The Japanese participants
only concentrated on the eyes’ (they concentrated on eyes more) or ‘American participants rated mouths higher’
(they gave higher ratings to emoticons with happy mouths compared to Japanese participants).
LIMITATIONS OF STUDY
►
Lab setting lacks ecological validity.
►
Faces were artificial.
►
Dependent variable (reading emotions) was measured too simply (using rating scale).
►
Sample was age biased.
Clearly you need to be able to expand on these criticisms. This is important for top-band essays where you are asked
to evaluate a study, or if you are offered two (or more) marks for one limitation.
APPLICATIONS OF RESEARCH: SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING
Social skills training is used on
employees who work in customer
services.
trainer models appropriate NVC by
demonstrating it to the trainees
trainees use role play to practice the
NVC on each other
This is because employees may be able
to use non-verbal communication to
help to sell a product, or it may be
useful when dealing with difficult
customers e.g. customer complaints.
trainer gives feedback on the role
playing – reinforcing effective
behaviour
When candidates get a question about social skills training, they often talk about when and where it would be used
and what the outcomes might be. These are important but not enough. To get some psychology into the answer, you
also need to talk about the processes involved in social skills training i.e. modelling, role playing and feedback. If you
miss these out, you will limit your mark.
EXAM STYLE QUESTIONS
1.
Give one example of body language and state what message it may communicate. (2)
2.
Give one example of a facial expression and state what message it may communicate. (2)
3.
Social Learning theory is one explanation of non-verbal communication.
Complete the passage below, on Social Learning theory, by filling in the gaps. (4)
You must choose a different word for each gap from the list below.
developed
imitates
observes
punished
reinforced
Social Learning theory states that non-verbal communication starts when a child __________ other
people using non-verbal signals. The child then ___________ these signals by performing them
themselves. If the signals help them to communicate then these are ____________ and they use them
again. However, if the signals do not work or are inappropriate, children may be __________ and are
less likely to use them again.
4.
Outline two criticisms of the social learning theory of non-verbal communication. (4)
5.
The Evolution of Non-Verbal Communication
Human beings use a number of non-verbal cues to help protect themselves. They may, for example, avoid staring or
use open body language to calm down difficult situations. Non-verbal cues can be positive in a different way. Smiling
and blushing may actually help us to attract others.
Using the source;
(a) Give one example of a non-verbal cue associated with survival. (1)
(b) Give one example of a non-verbal cue associated with reproduction. (1)
6. Answer the following questions about Yuki et al’s (2007) study of facial expressions.
For each question, choose one answer by ticking the relevant box. (3)
(a)What type of study did Yuki et al use?
(i)correlation
(ii)
(iii)cross(b)Who did they compare American students with?
(i)Chinese students
(ii)
(iii)Ru
(c)Which feature did American students focus on the most?
(i) eyes
(ii)
(iii)
7. Evaluate Yuki et al’s study of non-verbal communication. (4)
8. Describe one way in which social skills training has been used in real-life. (4)