Download Lecture1+2

Data Mining and Big
Data
Ahmed K. Ezzat,
Data Mining Concepts and
Techniques
1
Outline

Data Mining Introduction

Getting to know your data
2
• Why and What is Data Mining?
• Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining
• What Kind of Data and Patterns Can be Mined?
• What Technology Are Used?
• What Are The Target Applications?
Data Mining Introduction
3
1. Why Data Mining?

The Explosive Growth of Data: from terabytes to petabytes

Data collection and data availability

Automated data collection tools, database systems, Web,
computerized society

Major sources of abundant data

Business: Web, e-commerce, transactions, stocks, …

Science: Remote sensing, bioinformatics, scientific simulation,
…

Society and everyone: news, digital cameras, YouTube

We are drowning in data, but starving for knowledge!

“Necessity is the mother of invention”—Data mining—Automated
analysis of massive data sets
4
1. What Is Data Mining?

Data mining (knowledge discovery from data)

Extraction of interesting (non-trivial, implicit, previously unknown
and potentially useful) patterns or knowledge from huge amount
of data


Alternative names


Data mining: a misnomer?
Knowledge discovery (mining) in databases (KDD), knowledge
extraction, data/pattern analysis, data archeology, data
dredging, information harvesting, business intelligence, etc.
Watch out: Is everything “data mining”?

Simple search and query processing

(Deductive) expert systems
5
1. Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process


This is a view from typical
database systems and data
warehousing communities
Pattern Evaluation
Data mining plays an essential
role in the knowledge discovery
process
Data Mining
Task-relevant Data
Data Warehouse
Selection
Data Cleaning
Data Integration
Databases
6
1. Data Mining in Business Intelligence
Increasing potential
to support
business decisions
Decision
Making
Data Presentation
Visualization Techniques
End User
Business
Analyst
Data Mining
Information Discovery
Data
Analyst
Data Exploration
Statistical Summary, Querying, and Reporting
Data Preprocessing/Integration, Data Warehouses
Data Sources
Paper, Files, Web documents, Scientific experiments, Database Systems
DBA
7
1. KDD Process: A Typical View from ML and Statistics
Input Data
Data PreProcessing
Data integration
Normalization
Feature selection
Dimension reduction

Data
Mining
Pattern discovery
Association & correlation
Classification
Clustering
Outlier analysis
…………
PostProcessing
Pattern
Pattern
Pattern
Pattern
evaluation
selection
interpretation
visualization
This is a view from typical machine learning and statistics communities
8
2. Multi-Dimensional View of Data Mining

Data to be mined


Database data (extended-relational, object-oriented, heterogeneous,
legacy), data warehouse, transactional data, stream, spatiotemporal,
time-series, sequence, text and web, multi-media, graphs & social and
information networks
Knowledge to be mined (or: Data mining functions)

Characterization, discrimination, association, classification, clustering,
trend/deviation, outlier analysis, etc.
 Descriptive vs. predictive data mining
 Multiple/integrated functions and mining at multiple levels

Techniques utilized


Data-intensive, data warehouse (OLAP), machine learning, statistics,
pattern recognition, visualization, high-performance, etc.
Applications adapted

Retail, telecommunication, banking, fraud analysis, bio-data mining,
stock market analysis, text mining, Web mining, etc.
9
2. Data Mining: On What Kinds of Data?

Database-oriented data sets and applications


Relational database, data warehouse, transactional database
Advanced data sets and advanced applications

Data streams and sensor data

Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data (incl. bio-sequences)

Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data

Object-relational databases

Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases

Spatial data and spatiotemporal data

Multimedia database

Text databases

The World-Wide Web
10
3. Data Mining Function:
(1) Generalization

Information integration and data warehouse construction



Data cleaning, transformation, integration, and multidimensional
data model
Data cube technology

Scalable methods for computing (i.e., materializing)
multidimensional aggregates

OLAP (online analytical processing)
Multidimensional concept description: Characterization
and discrimination

Generalize, summarize, and contrast data characteristics, e.g.,
dry vs. wet region
11
3. Data Mining Function:
(2) Association and Correlation Analysis

Frequent patterns (or frequent itemsets)


What items are frequently purchased together in your Walmart?
Association, correlation vs. causality

A typical association rule


Diaper  Beer [0.5%, 75%] (support, confidence)
Are strongly associated items also strongly correlated?

How to mine such patterns and rules efficiently in large
datasets?

How to use such patterns for classification, clustering,
and other applications?
12
3. Data Mining Function:
(3) Classification

Classification and label prediction

Construct models (functions) based on some training examples

Describe and distinguish classes or concepts for future prediction



Predict some unknown class labels
Typical methods


E.g., classify countries based on (climate), or classify cars
based on (gas mileage)
Decision trees, naïve Bayesian classification, support vector
machines, neural networks, rule-based classification, patternbased classification, logistic regression, …
Typical applications:

Credit card fraud detection, direct marketing, classifying stars,
diseases, web-pages, …
13
3. Data Mining Function:
(4) Cluster Analysis

Unsupervised learning (i.e., Class label is unknown)

Group data to form new categories (i.e., clusters), e.g.,
cluster houses to find distribution patterns

Principle: Maximizing intra-class similarity & minimizing
interclass similarity

Many methods and applications
14
3. Data Mining Function:
(5) Outlier Analysis

Outlier analysis

Outlier: A data object that does not comply with the general
behavior of the data

Noise or exception? ― One person’s garbage could be another
person’s treasure

Methods: by product of clustering or regression analysis, …

Useful in fraud detection, rare events analysis
15
3. Time and Ordering: Sequential Pattern,
Trend and Evolution Analysis

Sequence, trend and evolution analysis






Trend, time-series, and deviation analysis: e.g., regression and
value prediction
Sequential pattern mining
 e.g., first buy digital camera, then buy large SD memory cards
Periodicity analysis
Motifs and biological sequence analysis
 Approximate and consecutive motifs
Similarity-based analysis
Mining data streams

Ordered, time-varying, potentially infinite, data streams
16
4. Structure and Network Analysis

Graph mining


Information network analysis




Finding frequent sub-graphs (e.g., chemical compounds), trees
(XML), substructures (web fragments)
Social networks: actors (objects, nodes) and relationships (edges)
 e.g., author networks in CS, terrorist networks
Multiple heterogeneous networks
 A person could be multiple information networks: friends,
family, classmates, …
Links carry a lot of semantic information: Link mining
Web mining


Web is a big information network: from PageRank to Google
Analysis of Web information networks
 Web community discovery, opinion mining, usage mining, …
17
4. Data Mining: Confluence of Multiple Disciplines
Machine
Learning
Applications
Algorithm
Pattern
Recognition
Data Mining
Database
Technology
Statistics
Visualization
High-Performance
Computing
18
4. Why Confluence of Multiple Disciplines?

Tremendous amount of data


High-dimensionality of data


Micro-array may have tens of thousands of dimensions
High complexity of data







Algorithms must be highly scalable to handle such as tera-bytes of
data
Data streams and sensor data
Time-series data, temporal data, sequence data
Structure data, graphs, social networks and multi-linked data
Heterogeneous databases and legacy databases
Spatial, spatiotemporal, multimedia, text and Web data
Software programs, scientific simulations
New and sophisticated applications
19
5. Applications of Data Mining

Web page analysis: from web page classification, clustering to
PageRank & HITS algorithms

Collaborative analysis & recommender systems

Basket data analysis to targeted marketing

Biological and medical data analysis: classification, cluster analysis
(microarray data analysis), biological sequence analysis, biological
network analysis

Data mining and software engineering (e.g., IEEE Computer, Aug.
2009 issue)

From major dedicated data mining systems/tools (e.g., SAS, MS SQLServer Analysis Manager, Oracle Data Mining Tools) to invisible data
mining
20
Summary

Data mining: Discovering interesting patterns and knowledge from
massive amount of data

A natural evolution of database technology, in great demand, with
wide applications

A KDD process includes data cleaning, data integration, data
selection, transformation, data mining, pattern evaluation, and
knowledge presentation

Mining can be performed in a variety of data

Data mining functionalities: characterization, discrimination,
association, classification, clustering, outlier and trend analysis, etc.

Data mining technologies and applications

Major issues in data mining
21
• Data Objects & Attribute Types
• Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
• Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity
• Data Visualization
Getting To Know Your Data
22
1. Types of Data Sets

pla
y
ball
score
game
wi
n
lost
timeout
season

coach

team

Record

Relational records

Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,
crosstabs

Document data: text documents: termfrequency vector
Document 1

Transaction data
Document 2
Graph and network

World Wide Web
Document 3

Social or information networks

Molecular Structures
Ordered

Video data: sequence of images

Temporal data: time-series

Sequential Data: transaction sequences

Genetic sequence data
Spatial, image and multimedia:

Spatial data: maps

Image data:

Video data:
3
0
5
0
2
6
0
2
0
2
0
7
0
2
1
0
0
3
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
2
2
0
3
0
TID
Items
1
Bread, Coke, Milk
2
3
4
5
Beer, Bread
Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
Coke, Diaper, Milk
23
1. Important Characteristics of Structured Data

Dimensionality


Sparsity


Only presence counts
Resolution


Curse of dimensionality
Patterns depend on the scale
Distribution

Centrality and dispersion
24
1. Data Objects

Data sets are made up of data objects.

A data object represents an entity.

Examples:

sales database: customers, store items, sales

medical database: patients, treatments

university database: students, professors, courses

Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.

Data objects are described by attributes.

Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.
25
1. Attributes


Attribute (or dimensions, features, variables): a data
field, representing a characteristic or feature of a data
object.
 E.g., customer _ID, name, address
Types:



Nominal
Binary
Numeric: quantitative
 Interval-scaled
 Ratio-scaled
26
1. Attribute Types



Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
 Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
 marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
Binary
 Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
 Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important

e.g., gender
 Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.

e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)

Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)
Ordinal
 Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude
between successive values is not known.
 Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
27
1. Numeric Attribute Types


Quantity (integer or real-valued)
Interval




Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
Values have order
 E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
No true zero-point
Ratio


Inherent zero-point
We can speak of values as being an order of magnitude
larger than the unit of measurement (10 K˚ is twice as high as
5 K˚).
 e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts, monetary
quantities
28
1. Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes

Discrete Attribute




Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values
 E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a collection of
documents
Sometimes, represented as integer variables
Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete attributes
Continuous Attribute



Has real numbers as attribute values
 E.g., temperature, height, or weight
Practically, real values can only be measured and represented
using a finite number of digits
Continuous attributes are typically represented as floating-point
variables
29
2. Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

Motivation


Data dispersion characteristics


median, max, min, quantiles, outliers, variance, etc.
Numerical dimensions correspond to sorted intervals



To better understand the data: central tendency, variation and
spread
Data dispersion: analyzed with multiple granularities of precision
Boxplot or quantile analysis on sorted intervals
Dispersion analysis on computed measures


Folding measures into numerical dimensions
Boxplot or quantile analysis on the transformed cube
30
2. Measuring the Central Tendency

Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population):
Note: n is sample size and N is population size.



1 n
x   xi
n i 1
N
n
Weighted arithmetic mean:
Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values
x
Median:

x


Middle value if odd number of values, or average of
w x
i 1
n
i
i
w
i 1
i
the middle two values otherwise


Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):
Mode
median  L1  (
n / 2  ( freq)l
freqmedian

Value that occurs most frequently in the data

Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal

Empirical formula:
) width
mean  mode  3  (mean  median)
31
2. Symmetric vs. Skewed Data

Median, mean and mode of
symmetric, positively and
negatively skewed data
positively skewed
symmetric
negatively skewed
32
2. Measuring the Dispersion of Data

Quartiles, outliers and boxplots

Quartiles: Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)

Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1

Five number summary: min, Q1, median, Q3, max

Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers, and plot outliers individually


Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR
Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)

Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)
1 n
1 n 2 1 n
2
s 
( xi  x ) 
[ xi  ( xi ) 2 ]

n  1 i 1
n  1 i 1
n i 1
2

1
 
N
2
n
1
(
x


)


i
N
i 1
2
n
 xi   2
2
i 1
Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)
33
2. Boxplot Analysis

Five-number summary of a distribution


Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
Boxplot

Data is represented with a box

The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR

The median is marked by a line within the box

Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum

Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually
34
2. Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

The normal (distribution) curve
 From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the
measurements (μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)
 From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it
 From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it
35
2. Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions

Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis represent frequencies

Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating that
approximately 100 fi % of data are  xi

Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of one
univariant distribution against the corresponding quantiles
of another

Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
36
2. Histogram Analysis



Histogram: Graph display of
tabulated frequencies, shown as
bars
40
It shows what proportion of cases
fall into each of several categories
30
35
25
Differs from a bar chart in that it is
20
the area of the bar that denotes the
15
value, not the height as in bar
charts, a crucial distinction when the 10
categories are not of uniform width
5

The categories are usually specified
0
as non-overlapping intervals of
some variable. The categories
(bars) must be adjacent
10000
30000
50000
70000
90000
37
2. Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

The two histograms shown in
the left may have the same
boxplot representation


The same values for: min,
Q1, median, Q3, max
But they have rather different
data distributions
38
2. Quantile Plot


Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
Plots quantile information

For a data xi data sorted in increasing order, fi indicates that
approximately 100 fi% of the data are below or equal to the value xi
39
2. Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot



Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to another?
Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch 2 for
each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend to be lower
than those at Branch 2.
40
2. Scatter plot


Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc.
Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane
41
2. Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

The left half fragment is positively
correlated

The right half is negative correlated
42
2. Uncorrelated Data
43
3. Similarity and Dissimilarity



Similarity
 Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are
 Value is higher when objects are more alike
 Often falls in the range [0,1]
Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)
 Numerical measure of how different two data objects
are
 Lower when objects are more alike
 Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
 Upper limit varies
Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity
44
3. Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix


Data matrix
 n data points with p
dimensions
 Two modes
Dissimilarity matrix
 n data points, but
registers only the
distance
 A triangular matrix
 Single mode
 x11

 ...
x
 i1
 ...
x
 n1
...
x1f
...
...
...
...
xif
...
...
...
...
... xnf
...
...
 0
 d(2,1)
0

 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0

:
:
 :
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ...
x1p 

... 
xip 

... 
xnp 







... 0
45
3. Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

Can take 2 or more states, e.g., red, yellow, blue, green
(generalization of a binary attribute)

Method 1: Simple matching

m: # of matches, p: total # of variables
m
d (i, j)  p 
p

Method 2: Use a large number of binary attributes

Creating a new binary attribute for each of the M
nominal states
46
3. Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j

A contingency table for binary data
Object i

Distance measure for symmetric
binary variables:

Distance measure for asymmetric
binary variables:

Jaccard coefficient (similarity
measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

Note: Jaccard coefficient is the same as “coherence”:
47
3. Dissimilarity between Binary Variables

Example:
Name
Jack
Mary
Jim



Gender
M
F
M
Fever
Y
Y
Y
Cough
N
N
P
Test-1
P
P
N
Test-2
N
N
N
Test-3
N
P
N
Test-4
N
N
N
Gender is a symmetric attribute
The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
Let the values Y and P be 1, and the value N be 0
01
 0.33
2 01
11
d ( jack , jim ) 
 0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary ) 
 0.75
11 2
d ( jack , mary ) 
48
3. Standardizing Numeric Data


Z-score:

z  x

X: raw score to be standardized, μ: mean of the population, σ:
standard deviation

the distance between the raw score and the population mean in
units of the standard deviation

negative when the raw score is below the mean, “+” when above
An alternative way: Calculate the mean absolute deviation
sf  1
n (| x1 f  m f |  | x2 f  m f | ... | xnf  m f |)
where
mf  1
n (x1 f  x2 f  ...  xnf )
xif  m f
zif 
 standardized measure (z-score):
sf
.

Using mean absolute deviation is more robust than using standard
deviation
49
3. Example: Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
Data Matrix
point
x1
x2
x3
x4
attribute1 attribute2
1
2
3
5
2
0
4
5
Dissimilarity Matrix
(with Euclidean Distance)
x1
x1
x2
x3
x4
x2
0
3.61
5.1
4.24
x3
0
5.1
1
x4
0
5.39
0
50
3. Distance on Numeric Data: Minkowski Distance

Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure
where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two pdimensional data objects, and h is the order (the distance so
defined is also called L-h norm)


Properties:

d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)

d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)

d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric
51
3. Special Cases of Minkowski Distance

h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
 E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are
different between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1
i2 j 2
ip
jp

h = 2: (L2 norm) Euclidean distance
d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1
i2
j2
ip
jp

h  . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.
 This is the maximum difference between any component
(attribute) of the vectors
52
3. Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
Manhattan (L1)
point
x1
x2
x3
x4
attribute 1 attribute 2
1
2
3
5
2
0
4
5
L
x1
x2
x3
x4
x1
0
5
3
6
x2
x3
x4
0
6
1
0
7
0
x2
x3
x4
Euclidean (L2)
L2
x1
x2
x3
x4
x1
0
3.61
2.24
4.24
0
5.1
1
0
5.39
0
Supremum
L
x1
x2
x3
x4
x1
x2
0
3
2
3
x3
0
5
1
x4
0
5
0
53
3. Ordinal Variables

An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

Order is important, e.g., rank

Can be treated like interval-scaled

replace xif by their rank

map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing i-th
object in the f-th variable by
rif 1
zif 
M f 1

compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-scaled
variables
rif {1,...,M f }
54
3. Attributes of Mixed Type

A database may contain all attribute types


Nominal, symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, numeric, ordinal
One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects
 pf  1 ij( f ) dij( f )
d (i, j) 
 pf  1 ij( f )



f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise
f is numeric: use the normalized distance
f is ordinal
 Compute ranks rif and
rif  1
z

 Treat zif as interval-scaled
if
M
f
1
55
4. Pixel-Oriented Visualization Techniques

For a data set of m dimensions, create m windows on the screen, one
for each dimension

The m dimension values of a record are mapped to m pixels at the
corresponding positions in the windows

The colors of the pixels reflect the corresponding values
(a) Income
(b) Credit Limit
(c) transaction volume
(d) age
56
4. Direct Data Visualization
Ribbons with Twists Based on Vorticity
57
Used by permission of B. Wright, Visible Decisions Inc.
4. Landscapes


news articles
visualized as
a landscape
Visualization of the data as perspective landscape
The data needs to be transformed into a (possibly artificial) 2D spatial
representation which preserves the characteristics of the data
58
4. Tree-Map


Screen-filling method which uses a hierarchical partitioning
of the screen into regions depending on the attribute values
The x- and y-dimension of the screen are partitioned
alternately according to the attribute values (classes)
MSR Netscan Image
59
4. InfoCube


A 3-D visualization technique where hierarchical information
is displayed as nested semi-transparent cubes
The outermost cubes correspond to the top level data, while
the subnodes or the lower level data are represented as
smaller cubes inside the outermost cubes, and so on
60
4. Visualizing Complex Data and Relations


Visualizing non-numerical data: text and social networks
Tag cloud: visualizing user-generated tags


The importance of tag
is represented by font
size/color
Besides text data,
there are also
methods to visualize
relationships, such
as visualizing social
networks
Newsmap: Google News Stories in 2005
61
Summary

Data attribute types: nominal, binary, ordinal, interval-scaled, ratioscaled

Many types of data sets, e.g., numerical, text, graph, Web, image.

Gain insight into the data by:

Basic statistical data description: central tendency, dispersion,
graphical displays

Data visualization: map data onto graphical primitives

Measure data similarity

Above steps are the beginning of data preprocessing.

Many methods have been developed but still an active area of
research.
62
END
63