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World War II
VUS.11 ~ What were the causes and events that led to American involvement in the war, including
military assistance to Britain and the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor?
~ What were the major battles and turning points, including their locations in World War II?
Include the following places ~ North Africa, Europe, and the Pacific, including Midway,
Stalingrad, the Normandy landing (D-Day), and Truman’s decision to use the atomic bomb
to force the surrender of Japan?
~ What was the role of all-minority units, including the Tuskegee Airmen and Nisei
regiments?
~ What was the Geneva Convention and how were prisoners of war treated during World War
II?
~ What was the Holocaust (Hitler’s “final solution”), its impact on Jews and other groups, and
postwar trials of war criminals?
VUS.12 ~ What were the effects of World War II on the home front?
~ How did the United States mobilized its economic, human, and military resources?
~ What were the contributions of women and minorities to the war effort?
~ Why were Japanese Americans put in internment during the war?
~ What was the role of media and communications in the war effort?
The War in Europe
World War II began with Hitler’s invasion of Poland in 1939, followed shortly after by the Soviet
Union’s invasion from the east of Poland and the Baltic countries (Latvia, Lithuania, and Estonia). During the
first two years of the war, the United States stayed officially neutral, as Germany overran both France
and most of Europe and pounded Great Britain from the air. This German air attack on Britain was called
the Battle of Britain. In mid-1941, Hitler turned on his former partner and invaded the Soviet Union.
The United States gradually abandoned neutrality as events in Europe and Asia pulled the nations
toward war. Despite strong isolationist sentiment at home, the American government increasingly helped
Great Britain. First, the United States gave Britain war supplies and old naval warships in return for
military bases in Bermuda and the Caribbean Sea. Soon after in 1941, Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act,
which allowed the President to sell, lease, or lend defense equipment to nations whose defense the
President deemed (considered) vital to American security. In other words, this law gave the President
authority to sell or lend equipment to countries to defend themselves against the Axis powers. President
Franklin Roosevelt compared Lend-Lease to “lending a garden hose to a next-door neighbor whose house is
on fire.”
The War in Asia
During the 1930s, a militaristic Japan invaded and brutalized Manchuria and China as it sought
military and economic domination over Asia. The United States refused to recognize Japanese conquests in
Asia and placed an embargo (ban) on exports of oil and steel to Japan. Tensions rose but both countries
negotiated to avoid war.
While negotiating with the United States and without warning, Japan carried out an air attack on
the American naval base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on 7 December 1941. This attack destroyed much of the
American Pacific fleet and killed several thousand Americans. President Roosevelt called December 7 th “a
date that will live in infamy” as he asked Congress to declare war on Japan.
After Pearl Harbor, Hitler honored the Axis pact (agreement) with Japan and declared war on the
United States. The debates over isolationism in the United States were over. World War II was now a
true world war and the United States was fully involved. The United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet
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Union were the three most important countries that made up the Allies. Winston Churchill was the British
prime minister (leader of the government) during World War II. The Soviet Union had come into existence
in 1917, when communist revolutionaries had overthrown the czar (king) of Russia. Josef Stalin was the
communist dictator of the Soviet Union during World War II. In theory communism is an economic system
in which all property and means of production are owned by society as a whole. As practiced in the Soviet
Union, communism was a form of government in which both political and economic decisions were made by a
small group of government leaders.
Allied Strategy
Wartime strategies reflect the political and military goals of alliances, resources on hand, and the
geographical extent of the conflict. During World War II, the United States and its allies, Great Britain
and the Soviet Union, followed a “Defeat Hitler First” strategy. Therefore, most American military
resources were targeted for Europe. In the Pacific, American military strategy called for an “island
hopping” campaign. This meant the United States would seize Pacific islands closer and closer to Japan and
use them as bases for air attacks on Japan. In addition, the United States would cut off Japanese supplies
through submarine warfare against Japanese shipping.
Axis Strategy
The Axis Powers were the World War II alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Germany hoped to
defeat the Soviet Union quickly, gain control of Soviet oil fields, and force Britain out of the war through a
bombing campaign and submarine warfare, before America’s industrial and military strength could turn the
tide.
Following Pearl Harbor, Japan invaded the Philippines and Indonesia and planned to invade both
Australia and Hawaii. Its leaders hoped that America would then accept Japanese predominance (control)
in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, rather than conduct a bloody and costly war to reverse Japanese gains.
Major Battles and Military Turning Points
North Africa:
El Alamein – The British defeated German forces, who were threatening to seize Egypt and the
Suez Canal. This defeat denied Hitler control over Middle Eastern oil supplies and prevented him from
potentially attacking the Soviet Union from the south. El Alamein was the military turning point in the
North African theatre of World War II.
Europe:
Stalingrad – The Soviet army killed or captured hundreds of thousands of German soldiers in a
months-long siege of the Russian city of Stalingrad. This defeat prevented Germany from seizing the
Soviet oil fields and turned the tide against Germany in the east. Stalingrad was the military turning point
in the eastern theatre of the European war during World War II.
Normandy landings (D-Day) – American and Allied troops under General Dwight D. Eisenhower
landed in German-occupied France on 6 June 1944. Despite intense German opposition and heavy American
casualties, the landings succeeded and the liberation (freeing) of Western Europe from Hitler had begun.
D-Day was the military turning point in the western theatre of the European war. D-Day also opened up the
long-awaited Allied “second front,” which took pressure off the Soviet armies in Europe’s eastern theatre.
Pacific:
Midway – In the “Miracle of Midway,” American naval forces defeated a much larger Japanese
force as it prepared to seize Midway Island. Coming only a few months after Pearl Harbor, a Japanese
victory at Midway would have enabled Japan to invade Hawaii. The American victory ended the Japanese
threat to Hawaii and began a series of American victories in the “island hopping” campaign that carried the
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war closer and closer to Japan. Therefore, the Battle of Midway was the turning point of the war in the
Pacific.
Iwo Jima and Okinawa – The American invasions of the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa brought
American forces closer than ever to Japan. Both invasions cost thousands of American lives and even more
Japanese lives. Japanese soldiers fought fiercely over every square inch of the islands, and Japanese
soldiers and civilians often committed suicide rather than surrender.
Hiroshima and Nagasaki (the atomic bomb) – Harry S. Truman, who became president when FDR
died in April 1945, faced the prospect of very heavy casualties between both Americans and Japanese, if
American forces had to invade Japan itself. Therefore, President Truman ordered the use of atomic
bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to force the Japanese to surrender. Tens of
thousands of people died in both cities. Shortly after the United States dropped the atomic bombs, the
Japanese leaders surrendered. President Truman, thereby, avoided the need for American forces to
invade Japan.
Minority Participation in the American War Effort
World War II solidified the United States’ role as a global power. It also ushered in (started)
social changes and established reform agendas that would preoccupy public discourse (discussion) in the
United States for the remainder of the 20th century. When men left the factories to serve in the armed
forces during World War II, women entered into previously male job roles. African-Americans struggled to
obtain desegregation of the armed forces and end racial discriminatory hiring practices.
Throughout World War II, the United States armed forces generally required African-Americans
to serve in segregated military units and often assigned them to non-combat roles. African-Americans
demanded the right to serve in combat rather than support roles. For example, the Tuskegee Airmen, a
group of African-American flyers, served with distinction in Europe. Other minority units also contributed
to the American war effort. First, Nisei regiments of Japanese-Americans earned a high number of
decorations. Since the Nisei were American-born sons of Japanese immigrant parents, they were, of
course, Asian-Americans. Second, the U.S. military used communication codes of the Navajo Indians.
Because these codes consisted of oral rather than written language, it was impossible for the Japanese to
break them. Mexican-Americans, who also fought in the American armed forces, were not segregated in
separate units. Minority units suffered high casualties and won numerous unit citations and individual
medals for bravery in action.
The Geneva Convention and Treatment of Prisoners of War during World War II
The manner in which a nation conducts war often depends upon its social and moral codes. The
treatment of prisoners of war often reflects the savage nature of military conflict and the cultural norms
of the nation.
The Geneva Convention was one of a series of international agreements, first made in Geneva,
Switzerland, in 1864, which established rules for the humane treatment of prisoners of war and of the
sick, the wounded, and the dead in battle. The Geneva Convention tried to ensure the humane treatment of
prisoners of war by establishing rules to be followed by all nations.
During World War II, the treatment of prisoners of war varied greatly. The treatment of
prisoners in the Pacific Theater often reflected the savagery of the fighting there. For example, in the
Bataan Death March, American POWs suffered brutal treatment by the Japanese after the Americans
surrendered the Philippines. As the United States followed its island hopping strategy in the Pacific,
Japanese soldiers often committed suicide rather than surrender. In contrast, the treatment of prisoners
in Europe more closely followed the ideas of the Geneva Convention.
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The Holocaust and its Impact on Jews and other Groups
Specific groups, often the object of hatred and prejudice, face increased risk of discrimination
during wartime. This was particularly true for Jews who lived in areas under German control during World
War II. The Holocaust was Nazi Germany’s systematic murder of millions of European Jews. Hitler’s “final
solution” was Germany’s decision to exterminate (kill) all Jews. In short, Nazi Germany attempted genocide
of European Jews. Genocide is the systematic and purposeful destruction of a racial, political, religious, or
cultural group. In the Holocaust, the Nazis targeted not only Jews, but also Slavs, Gypsies, Poles, and
“undesirables.” The Nazis defined “undesirables” to include homosexuals, the mentally ill and political
dissidents (those who opposed Hitler’s government).
The Nuremberg Trials were post-World War II trials of Nazi leaders for war crimes. These trials,
held in Nuremberg, Germany, convicted many Nazi leaders of committing “crimes against humanity” during
World War II. The Nuremberg trials emphasized (stressed) individual responsibility for actions during a
war, regardless of the military orders the accused may have received. Since these trials publicized the
horrors of the Holocaust’s Nazi death camps, they led to increased demand for a Jewish homeland. In
1948, Jewish settlers living in the former British mandate of Palestine founded the nation of Israel as a
homeland for Jews. Both Great Britain and the United States quickly recognized the state of Israel.
The American Home Front during World War II
Success in World War II required the total commitment of America’s resources. Contributions to
the war effort came from all segments of society. Both American public schools and the American mass
media promoted (encouraged) nationalism or a strong feeling of patriotism during World War II. Also on
the home front, the federal government unfairly forced most Japanese-Americans to live in internment
camps throughout the war.
Economic resources – The United States government and American industry forged (put together)
a close working relationship to use resources effectively. First, the federal government used rationing to
maintain an adequate supply of products essential to the war effort. Under rationing, each American family
received a monthly allowance of such essential items as sugar, meat, and gasoline. Second, the Roosevelt
administration used war bonds and the federal income tax to finance the war. Bonds are government
I.O.U.s that are repaid with interest. In short, when the federal government sold war bonds, it was
borrowing money from the people to finance the war effort. Third, American corporations retooled from
peacetime to wartime production. For example, General Motors converted their automobile assembly plants
to factories that manufactured tanks.
Human resources – Citizens volunteered in support of the war effort. In addition, more women and
minorities entered the labor force as men entered the armed forces. Women entered into previously male
job roles. They increasingly participated in the workforce to replace men, who were serving in the armed
forces. “Rosie the Riveter” became a symbol of the American woman who traded housework for factory
work during World War II. Many women also joined the armed forces and participated in non-combat
military roles.
African-Americans struggled to obtain desegregation of the armed forces and end discriminatory
hiring practices. A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and an AfricanAmerican, fought against job discrimination. Randolph planned a giant march on Washington for July 1941
to demand equal hiring in defense jobs and the “right to fight” in the military. President Franklin D.
Roosevelt met with Randolph and made a deal. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, which prohibited
racial discrimination in war industries, although not in the armed forces. In return, Randolph agreed to
cancel the march. During World War II, African-Americans migrated to cities in search of jobs in war
plants. Throughout the war, African-American leaders campaigned for victory abroad and equality at home.
Military Resources – fighting a war on two fronts, (Europe and the Pacific) required the United
States to add tens of thousands of servicemen to the American Armed Forces. In 1940, at President
Roosevelt’s request, Congress passed the Selective Training and Service Act. This law established the
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first peacetime draft in American history. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the selective service or draft
law required all men between ages eighteen and forty-five to sign up for military service. This gave the
United States government a large pool of men from which to draw in order to meet the personnel needs of
the American military during World War II.
Internment of Japanese-Americans – During World War II, the United States government
relocated most Japanese-Americans to internment camps, where the government required them to stay
until the end of the war. Japanese-Americans could not leave these camps without government permission.
Internment especially affected Japanese-American populations living along the West Coast, where most
Americans of Japanese descent resided. In 1944, the United States Supreme Court upheld the federal
government’s right to place Japanese-Americans in internment camps in the case of Korematsu v. United
States. In 1988, President Ronald Reagan finally issued a public apology to these Japanese-Americans, and
the United States government made financial payments to thousands of surviving internees.
The experience of Japanese-Americans during World War II is a clear example of how racial
prejudice, coupled with wartime fears, can affect the civil liberties of minorities in a democracy like the
United States. Two basic reasons existed for the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War
II. First, strong anti-Japanese prejudice existed on the West Coast. Second, many Americans falsely
believed that Japanese-Americans were aiding the enemy.
Role of the American Media in the War Effort – During World War II, the American media and
entertainment industries saw their role as supporting the American war effort by promoting nationalism.
Nationalism is a strong feeling of patriotism or devotion to one’s country. The United States government
maintained strict censorship of the reporting of the war by the American media. Public morale and ad
campaigns kept Americans focused on the war effort. The American entertainment industry produced
movies, plays, and shows that boosted morale and patriotic support for the war effort, as well as portrayed
the enemy in stereotypical ways.
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