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【往年机经】2012年11月30日托福阅读真题解析 小马过河为大家准备了“小马过河2012年11月30日托福阅读真题解析” , 供各位备考托 福的考生们参考使用,来提高自己的托福成绩!免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 本次考试与 2012 年 4 月 22 日 ML 托福考试题目完全相同,阅读部分是 2010 年 3 月 6 日 NA 的考题。 TOPIC 观众效应与共同活动效应 版本一: 讲影响人们行为的观众效应和参与者效应,列举了一堆学者的实验和观点。 版本二: 讲人在有其他人在做同样事情的时候的效率相对于单独做一件事情的时候会如何?然后就给了两个 effect(具体什么 effect 不是很清楚了,反正就这描述这个现象的),其次,下面开始讲几个 experiment 来证明这两个 effect。还有给出了一些解释,说如果个人贡献可以被测量的时候,或者这份工作很 challenge 的话,其中一种 effect 不会出现。大致是这样。 版本三: 讲人在有其他人在做同样事情的时候的效率相对于单独做一件事情的时候会更好。例如骑车的时候, 和其他竞赛的话比自己计时骑车会快。但是不是一定这样。说有时候当人们一个 group 干活,但是每个组 员的贡献不能被很好 measure 的时候,个人效率就低了。提到一个 experiment。另外小组人数少的时候比 人多更有效率。提到一个 experiment,让人们一起喊,结果一个人的时候 80%力量喊,二个人、四个人的 时候又怎样喊。还有给出了一些解释,说如果个人贡献可以被测量的时候,或者这份工作很 challenge 的 话,或者小组成员之间关系很铁的时候,其中一种 effect 不会出现。 Social Facilitation Studies on social facilitation concern the extent to which a given piece of an individual's behavior is affected by the real, imagined or implied presence of others. Perhaps the first social psychology laboratory experiment was undertaken in this area by Norman Triplett in 1898. In his research on the speed records of cyclists, he noticed that racing against each other rather than against the clock alone increased the cyclists' speeds. He attempted to duplicate this under laboratory conditions using children and fishing reels. There were two conditions: 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 the child alone and children in pairs but working alone. Their task was to wind in a given amount of fishing line and Triplett reports that many children worked faster in the presence of a partner doing the same task. Triplett's experiments demonstrate the co-action effect, a phenomenon whereby increased task performance comes about by the mere presence of others doing the same task. The co-action effect may come into operation if you find that you work well in a library in preference to working at home where it is equally quiet (and so on)。 Other co-action effect studies include Chen (1937) who observed that worker ants will dig more than three times as much sand per ant when working (non-co-operatively) alongside other ants than when working alone and Platt, Yaksh and Darby (1967) found that animals will eat more of their food if there are others of their species present. Social facilitation occurs not only in the presence of a co-actor but also in the presence of a passive spectator/audience. This is known as the audience effect, surprisingly. Dashiell (1935) found that the presence of an audience facilitated subjects' multiplication performance by increasing the number of simple multiplications completed. Travis (1925) found that well-trained subjects were better at a psychomotor task (pursuit rotor) in front of spectators. However, Pessin (1933) found an opposite audience effect, namely that subjects needed fewer trials at learning a list of nonsense words when on their own than when in front of an audience. It seems, then, that the extent of social facilitation or inhibition depends upon the nature of the interaction between the task and the performer. In some cases the presence of co-actors/audience improved the quality of performance (Dashiell 1935, Cottrell 1972) but in others it impaired the quality (though it increased the quantity of, say, multiplications)。 Audience Effect The audience effect is the impact that a passive audience has on a subject performing a task. It was first formally noted in various psychology studies in the early 20th century. During some studies the presence of a passive audience facilitated the better performance of a simple task; while other studies show the presence of a passive audience inhibited the performance of a more difficult task. In 1965, Robert Zajonc proposed Drive theory as an explanation of the audience effect. Drive Theory in Social Psychology 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 In social psychology, drive theory was used by Robert Zajonc in 1965 as an explanation of the phenomenon of social facilitation. The audience effect notes that in some cases the presence of a passive audience will facilitate the better performance of a task, while in other cases the presence of an audience will inhibit the performance of a task. Zajonc's drive theory suggests that the variable determining direction of performance is whether the task is composed of a correct dominant response (that is, the task is perceived as being subjectively easy to the individual) or an incorrect dominant response (perceived as being subjectively difficult)。 In the presence of a passive audience, an individual is in a heightened state of arousal. Increased arousal, or stress, causes the individual to enact behaviors that form dominant responses, since an individual's dominant response is the most likely response, given the skills which are available. If the dominant response is correct, then social presence enhances performance of the task. However, if the dominant response is incorrect, social presence produces an impaired performance. TOPIC 月球表面成因 版本一: 月球表面的成因,两种说法,星球撞击说,和火山爆发说,分别进行论证。 版本二: 讲月球的地面状况,讲月球上的一个特征,这个特征是由于 impact 形成的还是 lava 形成的,说每个 科学家有什么发现,然后这些发现支持哪种观点。这篇个人觉得比较难,因为关于有地质学的单词,又有 天文学的单词,看得比较辛苦,但是大致思路不是很难懂。 Surface of the moon Early observers of the Moon believed that the dark regions on its face were oceans, giving rise to their name maria (Latin for “seas”)。 This term is still used today although these regions are now known to be completely dry. The brighter regions were held to be continents. Modern observation and exploration of the Moon has yielded far more comprehensive and specific knowledge. The Moon has no movement of wind or water to alter its surface, yet it was geologically active in the past and is still not totally unchanging. Craters cover the surface, and meteors continue to create new craters. Micrometeorites also slowly erode surface features and alter the lunar soil. Billions of years ago volcanic eruptions sculpted large areas of the surface. Volcanic features such as maria, domes (low, rounded, circular hills), and rilles (channels or grooves) are still discernable. Small amounts of gas from deep in the Moon may still reach 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 the surface. Scientists have also recently discovered possible evidence of ice in permanently shadowed areas of the surface. Such ice could have come from comet impacts. A. Craters The Moon’s surface is covered with craters overlain by a layer of soil called regolith. Nearly all the craters were formed by explosive impacts of high-velocity meteorites. Billions of years of this meteorite bombardment ground up the Moon’s surface rocks to produce the finely divided rock fragments that compose the regolith. Craters range in size from microscopic to the South Pole-Aitken Basin, which measures over 2,500 km (1560 mi) in diameter and would nearly span the continental United States. The highest mountains on the Moon, in the Leibnitz and Doerfel ranges near the south pole, make up the rim crest of the South Pole-Aitken Basin and have peaks up to 6,100 m (20,000 ft) in height, comparable to the Himalayas on Earth. At full Moon long bright streaks that radiate from certain craters can be seen. These streaks are called ray systems. Ray systems are created when bright material ejected from the craters by meteorites splashes out onto the darker surrounding surface. The biggest of the Moon’s craters were created by the impacts of large remnants from the formation of the planets billions of years ago when the young solar system still contained many such remnants. Astronomers, however, have directly observed meteorites forming small craters on the Moon’s surface. Seismometers operating on the lunar surface have also recorded signals indicating between 70 and 150 meteorite impacts per year, with projectile masses from 100 g to 1,000 kg (4 oz to 2,200 lb)。 Hence the Moon is still being bombarded by meteorites, although neither as often nor as violently as in the distant past. B. Volcanic Features Maria, domes, rilles, and a few craters display indisputable characteristics of volcanic origin. Maria are plains of dark-colored rock that cover approximately 40 percent of the Moon's visible hemisphere. The maria formed when molten rock erupted onto the surface and solidified between 3.16 billion and 3.96 billion years ago. This rock resembles terrestrial basalt, a volcanic rock type widely distributed on Earth, but the rock that formed the maria has a higher iron content and contains unusually large amounts of titanium. The largest of the maria is Oceanus Procellarum, an oval-shaped plain on the near side of the Moon 2,500 km by 1,500 km wide. Photographs of the side of the Moon not visible from Earth have revealed a startling fact: The far side generally lacks the maria that are so conspicuous a feature of the visible side. This probably reflects the fact that the Moon’s crust is thicker on the far side than on the near side, and therefore the lavas that form the maria were more easily erupted through the thinner crust of the near side. 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 Rilles are of two basic types: sinuous and straight. Sinuous rilles are meandering channels that are probably lava drainage channels or collapsed lava tubes formed by large lava flows. Straight rilles are large shallow troughs caused by movement of the Moon’s crust; they may be up to a thousand kilometers long and several kilometers wide. Domes are small rounded features that range from 8 to 16 km (5 to 10 mi) in diameter and from 60 to 90 m (200 to 300 ft) in height. Domes, thought to be small inactive volcanoes, often contain a small rimless pit on their tops. Magnetic and other measurements indicate a current temperature at the Moon’s core as high as 1600°C (2900°F), above the melting point of most lunar rocks. Evidence from seismic recordings suggests that some regions near the lunar center may be liquid. However, no recent eruptions of liquid rock have been observed and the Moon evidently has had no volcanic activity on its surface over the last 1 billion years. At most, trapped gas from deep in the Moon may still reach the surface in some places. Astronomers reported possible evidence of “out-gassing” on the surface of the Moon in the last 1 to 10 million years in a paper published in 2006. The unusually bright soil around a feature 3 km (2 mi) wide on the Moon’s equator indicates some process has turned over fresh regolith that has not had enough time to be “weathered” by solar wind and micrometeorites. Called Ina, the feature was first photographed from Apollo spacecraft orbiting the Moon in the 1970s, and was later examined by the Clementine probe. Gases from inside the Moon may have erupted on the surface, lifting and exposing fresh lunar soil. Scientists do not know the exact source and nature of the gases. At least three other lunar features that look similar to Ina have been identified. They may have been formed by bursts of gas, as well. Moon surface The face of the Moon turned toward us is termed the near side. It is divided into light areas called the Lunar Highlands and darker areas called Maria (literally, "seas"; the singular is Mare)。 The Maria are lower in altitude than the Highlands, but there is no water on the Moon so they are not literally seas. The dark material filling the Maria is actually dark, solidified lava from earlier periods of Lunar volcanism. Both the Maria and the Highlands exhibit large craters that are the result of meteor impacts. There are many more such impact craters in the Highlands. The side of the Moon unseen from the Earth is called the far side. One of the discoveries of the first Lunar orbiters is that the far side has a very different appearance than the near side. In particular, there are almost no Maria on the far side, but a number of meteor impact craters. 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 The amount of cratering is usually an indication of the age of a geological surface: the more craters, the older the surface, because if the surface is young there hasn't been time for many craters to form. Thus, the Earth has a relatively young surface because it has few craters. This is because the Earth is geologically active, with plate tectonics and erosion having obliterated most craters from an earlier epoch. In contrast the surface of the Moon is much older, with much more cratering. Further, different parts of the surface of the Moon exhibit different amounts of cratering and therefore are of different ages: the Maria are younger than the highlands, because they have fewer craters. The oldest surfaces in the Solar System are characterized by maximal cratering density. This means that one cannot increase the density of craters because there are so many craters that, on average, any new crater that is formed by a meteor impact will obliterate a previous crater, leaving the total number unchanged. Some regions of the moon exhibit near maximal cratering density, indicating that they are very old. TOPIC 厄尔尼诺 版本一: 厄尔尼诺的起因,形成和影响。大概讲道冷暖洋流的运动,对经济,渔业,气候的影响。 版本二: 讲一个地理现象,是与洋流相关的,首先有一副配图,然后先介绍一个 trend 和 wind 的交汇形成了一 个 nutritious 的地方,在赤道附近。然后讲下突然会有几个月的反正,这个反常就是文章介绍的现象,还 有介绍名字的来源啊,还有一个伴随的现象啊,最后讲了这个现象是越来越频繁还有越来越厉害了。 版本三: EINeno 厄尔尼诺现象讲一个地理现象,是与洋流相关的,首先有一副配图,然后先介绍一个 trend 和 wind 的交汇形成了一个 nutritious 的地方,在赤道附近。然后讲下突然会有几个星期的反常,有个什么 暖流经过,along the coast of Ecuador and Peru,limits the amount of nutrient-rich deep water normally surfaced by the upwelling process,鱼就不行了。通常来说 lasting only a few weeks to a month or more。当地的渔民都知道这个的,他们通常在这个时候就不干活。但是有时候这个现象会持续 几个月那么长,就会带来灾难。This is called "El Nino", or "the Christ Child", which is what Peruvian fisherman call the particularly bad fishing period around December. 有一个科学家通过一些数据 发现这种现象的 pattern. 正常状况下,西太平洋的海表面温度高于东太平洋,风由东往西吹。但是有的 年份,El Ni?o is observed when the easterly trade winds weaken, allowing warmer waters of the western Pacific to migrate eastward and eventually reach the South American Coast,进而导致全 球气候系统的异常。最后讲了这个现象是越来越频繁还有越来越厉害了 stronger。对美国造成影响。 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 El Niño El Niño (Spanish: “The Christ Child”), in oceanography and climatology, the anomalous appearance, every few years, of unusually warm ocean conditions along the tropical west coast of South America. This event is associated with adverse effects on fishing, agriculture, and local weather from Ecuador to Chile and with far-field climatic anomalies in the equatorial Pacific and occasionally in Asia and North America as well. The name El Ni?o was originally used during the 19th century by the fishermen of northern Peru in reference to the annual flow of warm equatorial waters southward around Christmas time. Peruvian scientists later noted that more intense changes occurred at intervals of several years and were associated with catastrophic seasonal flooding along the normally arid coast, while the thermal anomalies lasted for a year or more. The more unusual episodes gained world attention during the 20th century, and the original annual connotation of the name was replaced by that of the anomalous occurrence. The timing and intensity of El Ni?o events vary widely. The first recorded occurrence of unusual desert rainfall was in 1525, when the Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro landed in northern Peru . Historians suggest that the desert rains and vegetation encountered by the 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 Spaniards may have facilitated their conquest of the Inca empire. The intensity of El Ni?o episodes varies from weak thermal anomalies (2- 3 °C [about 4- 5 °F ]) with only moderate local effects to very strong anomalies (8- 10 °C [14- 18 °F ]) associated with worldwide climatic perturbations. El Ni?o events typically occur at three- to four-year intervals, with the strong events being less common. The intermittency varies widely, however, and the phenomenon is neither periodic nor predictable in the sense that ocean tides are. Beginning with the work of Sir Gilbert Walker in the 1930s, climatologists recognized a similar interannual change in the tropical atmosphere, which Walker termed the Southern Oscillation (SO)。 El Ni?o and the Southern Oscillation appear to be the oceanic and atmospheric components of a single large-scale, coupled interaction-the El Ni?o/Southern Oscillation (ENSO)。 During the warm phase of ENSO, the South Pacific trade-wind system undergoes a change of state, or “seesaw,” in which the westward-blowing trades weaken along the equator as the normally high pressure in the eastern South Pacific decreases and the low pressure over northern Australia and Indonesia rises. The pressure change and diminished trade winds cause warm surface water to move eastward along the equator from the western Pacific, while the warm surface layer in the east becomes thicker. Under normal conditions, the northward-blowing winds off South America cause nutrient-rich waters to upwell from below the shallow, warm surface layer. The nutrients (mainly phosphates and nitrates) provide a plentiful supply of food for photosynthesizing plankton, on which the fish feed. During El Ni?o, however, the thicker surface layer acts as a barrier to effective upwelling by the coastal winds. The unenriched surface waters are poor in nutrients and cannot support the normally productive coastal ecosystem. Fish populations are decimated as great numbers migrate to less-affected areas in search of food, resulting in temporarily reduced yields for the countries in the region. In 1972-73 this led not only to local economic setbacks but to repercussions in the world commodity markets as well. The warm ocean conditions in the equatorial Pacific induce large-scale anomalies in the atmosphere. Rainfall increases manyfold in Ecuador and northern Peru, causing coastal flooding and erosion and consequent hardships in transportation and agriculture. Additionally, strong El Ni?o events are associated with droughts in Indonesia, Australia , and northeastern South America and with altered patterns of tropical storms in the tropical belt. During the stronger El Ni?o episodes, the atmospheric “teleconnections” are extensive enough to cause unusually severe winter weather at the higher latitudes of North and South America. El Niño El Niño, oceanic and atmospheric phenomenon in the Pacific Ocean, during which unusually warm ocean conditions appear along the western coast of Ecuador and Peru, causing climatic disturbances of varying severity. The term originally was used to describe the warm southward current that appears in the region every December, but it is now reserved for occurrences that are exceptionally intense and persistent. These occur every three to seven years and can affect 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 climates around the world for more than a year. The name El Ni?o, Spanish for “the child,” refers to the infant Jesus Christ and is applied because the current usually begins during the Christmas season. Because a fluctuation in air pressure and wind patterns in the southern Pacific accompanies El Ni?o, the phenomenon is known as the El Ni?o Southern Oscillation, or ENSO. The climate disturbances caused by El Ni?o occur when sea surface temperatures in the southeastern tropical Pacific are unusually high. Normally, the warm waters are confined to the western tropical Pacific, with temperatures more than 10 Celsius degrees (18 Fahrenheit degrees) higher than the eastern waters of coastal Peru and Ecuador. The air pressure is quite low over the warmer waters. Moist air rises in the region, causing the clouds and heavy rainfall characteristic of southeastern Asia, New Guinea, and northern Australia. In the eastern Pacific, the water is cold and air pressure is high, creating the typically arid conditions along coastal South America. The trade winds blow from east to west, pushing sun-warmed surface waters westward and exposing cold water to the surface in the east. During El El Niño, however, the easterly trade winds collapse or even reverse. As the slight weakening of the winds causes a modest change in sea surface temperatures, the change in wind and pressure increases. The warm water of the western Pacific flows back eastward, and sea surface temperatures increase significantly off the western coast of South America. As this happens, the wet weather conditions normally present in the western Pacific move to the east, and the arid conditions common in the east appear in the west. This brings heavy rains to South America and can cause droughts in southeastern Asia, India, and southern Africa. It can also bring unusual weather to large parts of the United States. Economic effects of El Ni?o are felt particularly in coastal Peru and Ecuador. These cold-water zones normally support large populations of fish, especially anchovies. The fish are caught commercially and also provide food for seabirds, whose guano is an important component of the regional fertilizer industry. However, during El Ni?o a layer of warmer, nutrient-depleted water from the west covers the nutrient-rich eastern coastal waters. The fish and birds die or leave the area in search of food, thus upsetting the economy of the region. The El Ni?o events that began in 1982 and in 1997 were the most severe of the 20th century. Other recent occurrences began in 1972, 1976, 1987, 1991, and 1994. 源于:小马过河 相关推荐: 2012 年 12 月 02 日托福听力真题解析 2012 年 12 月 02 日托福阅读真题解析 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267 2012 年 12 月 02 日托福写作真题解析 2012 年 12 月 02 日托福口语真题解析 全国免费咨询电话:400-0123-267