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Buddhism - Religion or philosophy inspired by the 5th century B.C. teachings
of Siddhartha Gautama (the first Buddha, known as Gautama Buddha "the
enlightened one") in India. Buddhism split from Hinduism over 2500 years ago as a
reaction to questions about Hinduism’s teachings at the time (mainly Hinduism’s strict
social hierarchy that protected the privileged and kept millions in poverty .
Siddhartha was a prince that was appalled at the divide between how he was raised
compared to his subjects). Buddhism focuses on the goal of spiritual enlightenment
centered on an understanding of Gautama Buddha's Four Noble Truths on the nature of
suffering, and on the Eightfold Path of spiritual and moral practice, to break the
cycle of suffering of which we are a part. Buddhism ascribes to a karmic system of
rebirth, much like Hinduism.
Several schools and sects of Buddhism exist, differing often on the nature of the
Buddha, the extent to which enlightenment can be achieved - for one or for all, and by
whom - religious orders or laity (who can be holy). Mahayana Buddhism and Therevada
Buddhism claim the most adherents. Therevada Buddhism is a monastic faith that
survives in Sri Lanka, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. It holds that
salvation is a personal matter, achieved through good behavior and religious
activities, including periods of service as a monk or nun. Mahayana Buddhism,
which is mainly in Vietnam, Korea, Japan, and China, holds that salvation can be
aided by appeals to superhuman, holy sources of merit. The Buddha is regarded as
a divine savior. Mahayana Buddhists do not serve as monks, but they spend much
time in personal meditation and worship.
Christianity
Christianity split form Judaism in the first century C.E. Until the emperor
Constantine converted to Christianity in 324 C.E., early Christian communities were often persecuted.
It was then that the Roman Empire became the Holy Roman Empire, and its capital relocated
from Rome to Constantinople (formerly Byzantium and now Istanbul). The development of
Christian groups derived from major and minor splits.
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The Orthodox Church and its patriarch split away from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope in
1054 C.E. because of political and doctrinal differences. In the 16th century, Martin Luther, upset at
the corruption of the Catholic papacy, spearheaded a reformation movement that led to the
development of Protestantism.
Christian missionaries proselytize all over the world, and there are large populations of Christians on
every continent on Earth, although the forms of Christianity practiced vary. Although Christians are
a minority in the Middle East today, more than 75 percent of Americans of Arab descent are
Christian. Christianity developed out of the monotheistic tradition of Judaism; Jesus, its founder,
was a member of the Jewish community in Roman Palestine. Its holy scriptures are the Old
Testament (the Jewish Torah with additions), and the New Testament (written by the followers
of Jesus after his death and containing the life story of Jesus and other early Christian
writings).
Christians believe that God is revealed through three dimensions: the Father, the Son (Jesus
Christ), and the Holy Spirit. Jesus is considered the son of God, born to the Virgin Mary and
come to Earth to offer redemption for mankind's sins. After Jesus was crucified and executed
by the Romans, he rose from the dead and ascended into heaven. This event is celebrated at
Easter, while the birth of Jesus is celebrated at Christmas.
Christians believe in an afterlife where those who have lived a good life will reside in heaven
with God, and those who have lived an unrepentant life of sin will be punished in hell. Although
Christianity developed out of Judaic texts, Christians do not follow Jewish law. Instead, they believe
that the ritualistic Jewish law was abrogated in favor of a universal gospel for all of humanity and the
Christian teaching, "Love thy neighbor as thyself."
Relationships between Jewish and Christian communities have often been difficult, particularly in
Christian Europe. The Crusades were an unsuccessful attempt to reverse the Islamic conquest
of the eastern Mediterranean and the holy places of all three monotheistic religions.
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Hinduism – Hinduism is one of the oldest religions in the modern world, dating back over 4000
years, originating in the Indus River Valley of what is today modern Pakistan. Hinduism is unique among
world religions in a number of ways. The religion does not have a single founder, a single theology, or any
agreement on its origins. The common account of the history of Hinduism holds that the religion is based on
ancient practices in the Indus River cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. The ancient practices included
ritual bathing and belief in reincarnation, or at least a long journey after death. The common history says
that Aryans invaded (some say migrated) into the Indus region and gave the name Hinduism to the diverse
religious practices of the people who lived along the Indus River. Today, however, Hinduism is found mainly
in India. One of the most sacred places for Hindus is the Ganges River.
Many define Hinduism as a polytheistic religion because of the presence of many gods. However, many
Hindus define their religion as monotheistic. The one god is Brahman (the universal soul), and other gods in
the religion are various expressions of Brahman.
The religion does not have a prophet or single book of scriptures, although most Hindus recognize the
sacredness of the Vedas (the four texts that make up the sacred books of Hinduism). Hinduism is a
conglomeration of beliefs characterized by a great diversity of institutional forms and practices. The
fundamental doctrine is karma, which has to do with the transferability of the soul. According to Hindu
doctrine, all beings have souls and are arranged in a hierarchy. The ideal is to move upward in the hierarchy
then escape from the eternal cycle of reincarnation through union with Brahman (the universal soul). A soul
moves upward or downward according to the individual’s behavior in the present life. Good deeds and
adherence to the faith (good karma) lead to a higher level in the next life, whereas bad behavior (bad
karma) leads to demotion to a lower level. All souls, those of both animals and humans, participate in the
process. The principle of reincarnation is a cornerstone of Hinduism.
Hinduism’s doctrines are closely bound to Indian society’s caste system, for castes themselves are steps on the
universal ladder. However, the caste system locks people into particular social classes and imposes many
restrictions, especially in the lowest of classes,
Islam Islam arose in the early seventh century C.E. in the settled desert
community of Mecca (in present-day Saudi Arabia). It developed from both the JudeoChristian tradition and the cultural values of the nomadic Bedouin tribes of Arabia.Islam
expanded into areas controlled by the Byzantine Empire (largely Greek -speaking and
Orthodox Christian, but with a diverse population) and the Sassanian Empire (officially
Zoroastrian and Persian-speaking, but also diverse). By the mid-eighth century, Islam
had spread west into North Africa and Europe, and east into Central Asia. Over the
centuries, Islam continued to grow in sub -Saharan Africa, South Asia, and
Southeast Asia.
The two primary branches of Islam are Sunni and Shia, which split from each
other over a religio-political leadership dispute about the rightful successor to
Muhammad. The Shia believe Muhammad's cousin and son -in-law, Ali, was the only
divinely ordained Imam (religious leader), while the Sunni maintain the first three caliphs
after Muhammad were also legitimate authorities.
The Quran contains verses (surahs) in Arabic that tell Muslims to worship one
god, and explains how they should treat others properly. Another historical text,
the Hadith, written by scholars after the death of Muhammad, describes
Muhammad's life as an example of pious behavior, proscribes law for the
community based on the Quran and the example of Muhammad, and explains how
certain rituals should be performed. Observant Muslims practice five principles
(pillars) of Islam: orally declaring their faith (shahadah); praying five times a
day (salat); fasting in the daylight hours during the month of
Ramadan (sawm); giving a share of their income for charity (zakat); and making a
pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime if they can afford it (hajj). Many
Muslims also observe dietary rules, in origin similar to those of Judaism, that
forbid certain foods (like pork), outlaw alcohol, and dictate how animals should be
slaughtered for food.
The Muslim calendar is lunar, and shifts in relation to the solar calendar. Just as
Christians count years starting with the year of Jesus's birth, Muslims count years
beginning with Muhammad's move from Mecca to Medina in 622 C.E. Muslim years
are labeled as A.H., Anno Hegirae, or "year of the Hijra."Major Muslim festivals include
Id al-Fitr (the Fast-Breaking Festival, celebrated at the end of Ramadan) and Id al -Adha
(the Festival of Sacrifice, the commemoration of Abraham's willingness to sacrifice
Ishmail which takes place during the month of pilgrimage).
Muslims believe in a Day of Judgment, when righteous souls will go to heaven
and wrongdoers will go to hell. Islam sees Judaism and Christianity as earlier
versions of Islam, revelations given within the same tradition by Allah but
misunderstood over time by their followers. Muslims see Islam as the final, complete,
and correct revelation in the monotheistic tradition of the three faiths. The Islamic
tradition recognizes many of the Jewish and Christian prophets, including
Abraham, Moses, and Jesus (although he is not considered to be the son of God
Muhammad himself is not divine, but a prophet chosen by God to deliver his message
and an example of piety to emulate. Jews and Christians are specifically pr otected in the
Quran as Peoples of the Book, reinforcing their spiritual connection to Islam by virtue of
having been given revelations from God. The Islamic legal tradition has upheld the
rights of Jews and Christians to maintain their beliefs and practic es within their
communities in Islamic lands, and this policy of tolerance has generally been
upheld.
Judaism
Judaism is the oldest surviving monotheistic religion, arising in the eastern
Mediterranean in the second millennium B.C.E. Abraham is traditionally considered to be the
first Jew and to have made a covenant with God. Because Judaism, Christianity, and Islam all
recognize Abraham as their first prophet, they are also called the Abrahamic religions. While
there was always a small community of Jews in historic Palestine, in 73C.E. the Roman Empire
dispersed the Jews after an insurrection against Roman authority. Most Jews then lived
in Diaspora, as minorities in their communities, until the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.
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When Jews from all over the world came to settle in modern Israel, they found that various
subcultures had developed in different areas with distinctive histories, languages, religious practices,
customs, and cuisine. Jews believe in one god and his prophets, with special respect for Moses
as the prophet to whom God gave the law. Jewish law is embodied in the Torah(also known as
the Pentateuch) and the Talmud (collected commentary on the Torah completed in the fifthcentury C.E.).
Judaism is more concerned with actions than dogma. In other words, observance of
rules regulating human behavior has been of more concern than debates over beliefs in the
Jewish tradition. According to Orthodox Judaism, Jewish law, or halakhah, includes 613
commandments given by God in the Torah, as well as rules and practices elaborated by scholars and
custom. Jewish law covers matters such as prayer and ritual, diet, rules regulating personal
status (marriage, divorce, birth, death, inheritance, etc.), and observance of holidays (like Yom
Kippur, the Day of Atonement; and Passover, the feast celebrating the exodus of the Jews
from slavery in Egypt).
Jews do not believe in the prophets after the Jewish prophets, including Jesus and
Muhammad. Therefore, they do not subscribe to the idea that Jesus was the Messiah and the
son of God, nor do they believe in the teachings of Islam.
Sikhism - Founded by Sikhism’s first guru (religious teacher or enlightener), Guru Nanak (born 1469),
Sikhism believes in a supreme, eternal, creator God; centering one's devotion to God is seen as a means of
escaping the cycle of rebirth. Only God is perfect, but people have the capacity for continual improvement
and movement toward perfection by taking individual responsibility for their deeds and actions on Earth,
such as heartfelt adoration, devotion, and surrender to the one God.
Sikhs follow the teachings of Nanak and nine subsequent gurus. Their scripture, the Guru Granth Sahib - also
known as the Adi Granth - is considered the living Guru, or final authority of Sikh faith and theology. The
Guru Granth Sahib is kept at the Golden Temple of Amritsar, which is the holiest structure in Sikhism.
Sikhism emphasizes equality of humankind and disavows caste, class, or gender discrimination. The tenth
guru, Gobind Singh introduced the religions most sacred ritual, the Amrit (or Baptism), in which Sikhs declare
they will uphold the principles of the faith. Gobind Singh also introduced the practice of men wearing
turbans on their heads and never cutting their beards or hair. Wearing a uniform gave Sikhs a disciplined
outlook and a sense of unity of purpose.
Sikhism was founded at the turn of the 16th in the Punjab, a region now split between India and Pakistan.
More than nine-in-ten Sikhs are in India, but there are also sizable Sikh communities in the United Kingdom,
the United States and Canada. The World Religion Database estimates there are a total of about 25 million
Sikhs worldwide.
Non-religious
Agnosti cism: the beli ef that most thi ngs ar e unknowabl e . Ther ef ore, i n regar d to r eligi on it is usually
charact erized as neither a beli ef nor non-belief i n a deit y: not hing can be known about whet her God exists .
Athei sm: the belief that there are no deiti es of any kind.
Animism/Folk Religions
Animism is a term used in the study of religions to describe the belief systems of some indigenous tribal groups. Most
groups that follow an animist perspective do not even have a word in their language that corresponds with ‘animism’
and are often included when referring to folk religions. Animistic religions are centered on the belief that both animate
objects (such as animals and humans) and inanimate objects (such as mountains, boulders, rivers, and trees) possess
spirits and should therefore be revered (deep respect or admiration). Throughout much of human history, virtually all
religions were either animistic or polytheistic, or both, until the first monotheistic religions were founded about 3500
years ago.
Folk religions are closely tied to a particular people, ethnicity, or tribe. In some cases, elements of other world religions
are blended with local beliefs and customs. These faiths often have no formal creeds or sacred texts. There are
currently no countries where the majority of people identify with folk religions. Examples of folk religions include
African traditional religions, Chinese folk religions, Native American religions, and Australian aboriginal religions and are
usually found in rural areas of the modern world.