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Biotechnology and lifelong learning
Biotechnology and lifelong learning
Marcie Boucouvalas, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University Graduate Centre
The term technology is rapidly making its presence into the lexicon of learners, learning facilitation,
agents, and organisers. Some might even suggest that technology’s potential in impacting and shaping
curricular issues has barely begun. Others would warn of the perils involved in over-technologising.
Etymologically the term technology derives from the Greek root  (techne) meaning art, craft, skill,
science. The same root term has been employed in an epistemological sense as the first of the Greek
knowledge categories derived from the philosophers of the classical era. As discussed elsewhere 1, techne
means the domain of learning which deals with information. Consequently, one might conjecture that
technology helps one better process information relevant to one’s art, craft, skill, science.
The term biotechnology, however, is less familiar at present to the world of learning. Derived from the
Greek root  (bio) - meaning life - biotechnology may be defined as the development and use of
technology that enables one to procure more information about (and often better understand and assist) the
living organism.
As is typical in early stages of genesis, the term is currently lacking in conceptual precision. As would be
expected, therefore, no one agreed upon definition of biotechnology abounds. The biotechnological
‘industries’, however, seem to have come to the forefront in popularising the term. Such an industrial or
commercial rendition of the term refers to ‘technology which uses biological systems to produce awful
products’. For example, the use of fungi and microbes and the creation of synthetic pharmaceuticals to
increase and improve plant and livestock production is highlighted and has become a popularised
understanding of biotechnology in the general press.
It is with these cautions of the popular knowledge in mind that Warren Hyder (managing director of the
American Biotechnological Association), advised that I stay cognisant of the ‘common understanding’ and misunderstanding - of the term2. An example illustrates his caveat: He was approached by an
industrial trade association who wanted to join the American Biotechnological Association. Their
rationale? They delivered green industrial oxygen tanks which are (a technology) used to support life
systems!
The scope of the term biotechnology may include such diverse areas as genetic and industrial engineering,
pharmacological interventions, biofeedback instrumentation, etc. For purposes of the present inquiry,
therefore, the scope of the term - and accordingly the investigation - was limited to three areas pertinent to
the world of lifelong learning: (a) Computer-imaging technologies of the brain and their role in
understanding cognitive functioning and disfunctioning . (b) Various biofeedback approaches and other
technologies relevant consciousness levels and states. (c) The use and potential misuse of selected
pharmacological agents.
Approach
The underlying aim of this paper, and inquiry upon which it is based, is to introduce the territory of
biotechnology to lifelong learning professionals (particularly those working with the adult years). The
intent is to raise issues for dialogue while engaging in a discussion and movement toward responsible
understanding.
The approach of the involved an extensive literature review from multidisciplinary sources complemented,
in part, by interviews with research scientists and direct observation, by the author, of the technologies.
When possible, practical and experiential involvement with the various technologies was undertaken. Data
sources for the literature review were dispersed over medical, engineering, physical science, as well as
educational and social science literature. The complementary in person interviews and observational and
experiential involvement were undertaken to verify and deepen the writer’s understanding, and to ensure
responsible attention to caveats surrounding the knowledge claims.
1
Boucouvalas, M. (1987) Learning throughout life: the information - knowledge- wisdom framework. In
Educational Considerations, 14 (2,3), 32-38.
2
Hyder, W. (1989, May) Telephone interview. (Managing Director, American Biotechnological
Association).
Reproduced from 1989 Conference Proceedings, pp. 180-185
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Biotechnology and lifelong learning
Findings and discussion
This stream of inquiry is part of a larger research effort of the author to reconcile the technologically
related aspects of the neurosciences and newly emerging field of cognitive neurosciences 3 with the mindactivated aspects of consciousness studies (a bibliography of papers and publications of the author
particularly on the transfers is available upon request). A balance between technology and human values is
a philosophical position which underlies the inquiry, and served as a frame of reference. Discussion will
revolve around the three areas delineated above: (a) computer imaging technologies, (b) biofeedback and
other consciousness-related technological approaches, (c) pharmacological agents.
Computer imaging technologies
Sixty years ago, in 1929, the electroencephalograph (EEG) introduced by Hans Berger was heralded as a
great advance in its ability to record the electrical activity of the brain. Basically, the electric currents
generated by the brain are picked up by electrodes attached to the scalp amplified by a transistor and
magnified so that the currents move an electromagnetic pen which records the current on continually
moving paper (or sent via radio transmission as from outer space). In a sense one might say that the EEG
was the biotechnology of its day. Although useful in studying how the brain works it provides only a gross
measure.
Today an equally momentous advance has arisen with the advent of computer imaging technologies. Via
the aid of computers, electrical (and other) data are transformed into images which afford clearer ‘pictures’
about the structure and function of the brain, among them; BEAM, NMR, PET , and CT OR CAT.
BEAM, or Brain Electric Activity Mapping, has been described as a method for extending the utility of the
EEG4. Assisted by the computer, the paper recordings of the EEG are translated into computer images
which pinpoint and depict the location of the activity and action within the brain. It is already recognised,
albeit with caution, for its role in diagnosing dyslexia5.
NMR, or Nuclear Magnetic resonance, is essentially the use of superconducting devises to study, detect,
and measure the extracranial (near the scalp) magnetic field pattern of the brain and consequently in an
applied manner to study cognitive processes. The source of the magnetic field is the ‘pattern of
intracelluar currents in active neurons’ 6. In addition to the ‘purer’ research into cognitive function,
applications of NMR in clinical psychiatric intervention abound (bibliography available upon request).
NMR is heralded for its ability to provide information about changes (chemical) that take place within the
cells and with further refinement is considered more instructive and less harmful than PET and CAT scans
discussed below.
PET scans produce a multicolour map of metabolic activity in the brain while an individual is engaged in
some cognitive task. This feat is accomplished by an injection of glucose with a radioactive tracer which
highlights and records the amount of the substance metabolised by different regions of the brain - thus
affording a functional picture (via X-ray and computer imaging) of the parts of the brain which are
involved - and the degree to which they are engaged - in specific cognitive processes. Although originally
- and still - used for medical and psychiatric diagnosis and understanding, more recent advances have been
made as to its potential for studying ‘normal’ brain activity. It is still questionable, however, what kind of
risk the use of radioactive tracers may pose.
3
Boucouvalas, M. (1988a). Advances in the neuroscienoes: implications and relevance for lifelong
learning professionals. In W.M. Rivera and C. Davis (eds) Lifelong research conference proceedings,
College Park, MD: Univ. of Maryland, pp 16-20. (1988b) Research and developments in the
neurosciences: relevance for adult education. In C.E. Warren (ed) Proceedings of the twenty -ninth
annual Adult Education Research Conference, Calgary, Alberta: University of Calgary, pp. 13-18
(error: pp 15 & 16 reversed).
4
Duffy, F.H., Burchfiel, J.L., and Lombroso, C.T. (1979) Brain electric activity mapping (BEAM): a
method for extending the clinical utility of EEG and evoked potential data. In Annals of Neurology, 5,
309-321.
5
Duffy, F.H., Denckla, M.B., Barterl, P.H., and Sandini, G. (1980a) Dyslexia: regional differences in brain
electrical activity by topographic mapping. In Annals of Neurology, 1, 412-420. Duffy, F.H., Denckla,
M.B., Bartels, P.H., Sandini, G., and Kiessing, L.S. (1980b) Dyslexia: Automated diagnosis by
computerised classification of brain electrical activity. In Annals of Neurology , 1, 421-428
6
Buchanan, D.S., Paulson, D., and Williamson, S.J. (1987). Instrumentation for clinical applications of
neuromaqnetism. Paper presented at the International Cryogenic Materials Conference and Cryogenic
Engineering Conference, Batavia, IL: Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, June 14-18, 1987; p. 1
Reproduced from 1989 Conference Proceedings, pp. 180-185
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CAT-scan, or Computerised Axial Topography, was one of the earlier technologies available to acquire
photographic representation of the brain, although limited to structural rather than functional information.
The process is similar to PET in that radioactive traces enable the illumination of different angles and
cross-sections of the brain. Because the radioactive concentration is higher than with PET, CAT has been
primarily used in medical diagnosis of haemorrhaging and the like.
All technologies produce topographical mapping of the internal structure and sometime functioning of the
brain has not heretofore been possible. Already papers and articles are appearing (some by educators)
regarding their potential relevance to learning and education7. How well do educators understand not just
the potential, but the caveats associated with these technologies, and what of the basic research upon
which these claims are based? Adult educators seem silent (at least publicly, in the literature) on the
matter. How will we respond - as individuals, as a field?
Biofeedback and other consciousness-related technologies
Biofeedback instrumentation and technology have proliferated for decades. Berger’s discovery, noted
earlier, that the brain continually emits waves at different frequencies laid the foundation for the
development of instrumentation which ‘feeds back’ to the individual organism information via variable
sounds or light about the frequency of the brain wave emitted. More rapid frequencies (number of cycles
per second emitted) produce higher sounds and different hues and vice versa. Frequencies range from a
low of Delta (sleep) to a high of Gamma (extreme agitation). Much biofeedback training has been ongoing
for decades to enable the organism to become more aware and accordingly ‘control’ one’s consciousness
level. Advances in self-regulation as a result of these technologies have been well documented as tools for
releasing the power of the human psyche. Many kinds of feedback devices have been developed over the
years and others are in process. All are intended o give information back to the organism - in visual or
auditory cues - and help one practice self-regulation of biological processes.
Other technological breakthroughs such as musical composition in a specified octave range and blend
induce receptivity to some kinds of learning. Although more research is warranted, at least one thrust that of suggestology and suggestopedia - has taken root in commercial packages and proliferation of
programmes to learn languages particularly, but has also proved beneficial in learning multiplication tables
and other rhythmic activities. Basically, the arrangement of musical composition attunes the brain to emit
a lower frequency which is purportedly more receptive to ‘rhythmic’ learning. Although the individual
organism is not as actively involved as in ‘biofeedback’ arenas one is still consciously aware of the music
can permit or prevent its purported effect.
At the other end of the spectrum, however, is the subliminal communication technology. Subliminal
perception or consciousness refers to the brain’s ability to register, process, and often act upon information
received without the perceptual knowledge of one’s conscious experience and subjective awareness. The
emerging research in this area, therefore, points to the limited capacity of the conscious mind.
That in the phenomenal world one’s senses can take in more than the conscious mind is aware of has been
well documented over the decades by tachistoscopic presentation of visual stimuli at fractions of seconds.
Most people are familiar with the law suits which arose in the 1950s and 60s when it was discovered that
‘Buy Coca Cola’ frames were interspersed in movie film reels thus increasing the sale of Cokes during
intermission. Currently, commercial entrepreneurs have created large market houses selling both
subliminal tapes and videos. Essentially words or images are superimposed on or behind music or visual
scenes making the message inaudible or generally imperceptible to the conscious mind, but nevertheless
picked up, registered and often acted upon by the preconscious. Such tapes often focus on positive
affirmations such as successful weight loss, achieving higher grades, etc.
Some research on subliminal processing heralds its value relevant to learning specific tasks 8 and
particularly in reducing anxiety9, thus vying for attention with pharmacological intervention discussed
7
Andrews, D.B. (1986). Model for improvement of learning using topographic mapping. Paper presented
at the 67th annual American Educational Research Association San Francisco, April 16-20, 1986.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 276 757). Henk-William, A. (1987). Technological
advances and the study of reading. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 294 163).
8
Moore, D. M. (1982) An exploratory study of subliminal perception and field dependence in a concept
learning task taught by television. Doctoral Dissertation, Blacksburg, VA: Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University. Taylor, E. (1986) Subliminal communication: emperor’s clothes or
panacea: how to create your own subliminal program. Chat Lake City, UT: Just Another Reality
Reproduced from 1989 Conference Proceedings, pp. 180-185
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Biotechnology and lifelong learning
later, and in therapeutic situations10. Much literature, however, raises concerns about the adverse
implications of this increasingly sophisticated technology11.
Pharmacological intervention
The search for ‘better’ living organisms, spurred by discoveries within biochemical, neuroscientific, and
other advances, has led to pharmacological intervention (natural and synthetic) initially on an experimental
basis to understand and then improve the organism. Biotechnological intervention of this nature has
become well established and publicised in terms of selling, for example, quality livestock.
In the human realm, particularly as it relates to learning, the search for a better understanding (and
improvement of) the organism has focused on areas such as the molecular substrata of memory and the
chemical composition of neurotransmitters, (which ‘transmit’ information via the synapses from one
neuron to the next - thus accounting for the speed and quality of information processing). A long litany of
animal experiments is now being superseded not only by experimentation, but also by clinical intervention
with humans. Experimentation with genetic manipulation and enzyme engineering12 may be a far cry at
present from the world of learning, but on a closer horizon biotechnological pharmacological intervention
vis-à-vis general memory and cognition research and research on performance under stress are more
immediately relevant and seem to warrant closer inspection. The basic research relevant to memory
highlights the biotechnological production of substances known to be involved in memory, for example,
neuropeptides, growth hormones, etc.13
Much of the clinical intervention is currently focused on cases of Alzheimer and dementia in effort to
understand the role and potential of specific pharmacological It agents in ameliorating or improving mental
functioning, particularly long and short term memory. For example, cyclandelate 14 has been demonstrated
to result in increased cognitive functioning as has tetrahydroaminonacridine (Test drug, 1986) and
naloxine15. Other substances have been shown to have debilitating effects on cognition although most
effects fare temporary and reversible16.
Another area of significance is the research on substances such as oxprenolol hydrochloride 17 which has
been found to reduce levels of stress and anxiety (both physiological and cognitive effects) without
apparently causing unwanted side effects.
9
Clark, M.M., and Procidano, M. E. (1987) Comparison of the effectiveness of subliminal stimulation and
social support on anxiety reduction. In Social Behaviour and Personality, 15(2), 177-183
10
Yager, E.K. (1987) Subliminal therapy. San Diego, CA: Subliminal Training Institute.
11
Jacobson, S. (1985) Mind control in the United States. Santa Rosa, CA: Critique Pub. Johnson, K.L.
(1988). Subliminal selling skills. New York: AMACOM. Key, W. B. (1989) The age of
manipulation: the con in confidence, the sin in sincere. New York: H. Holt. Key, W. B. (1980) The
clam-plate orgy and other subliminals the media use to manipulate your behaviour. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice - Hall. Key, W.B. (1973) Subliminal seduction: ad media’s manipulation of a not so
innocent America. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Levy, S. (1984). The selling of the subliminal.
In Popular Computing, 3 (6), 70, 75-78. Nimmo, D.D., and Combs, J.E. (1980) Subliminal politics:
myths and mythmakers in America. Englewcod Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
12
Knowles, J.R. (1987, June) Tinkering with enzymes: what are we learning? Science, 236 (4806), 12521258. Ouette, R.P., and Cheremisinoff, P.N. (1988) Essentials of biotechnology. Basle, Switzerland:
Technomic
13
Van Brunt, J. Neuropeptides: the brain’s special messengers. In Bio/Technology, 4 (2), 107-112
14
.Blakemore, C.B. (1987) Cyclandelate in the treatment of multi-infarct dementia: interim findings from
a multi centre study in general practice. In Drugs, 33, 110- 113 (Supplement 2).
15
Reisburg, et al. (1983) Effects of naloxine in senile dementia: double blind trials. In New England
Journal of Medicine, 308, 721-722.
16
Denicoff, K.D., et al. (1978) Neuropsychiatric effects of treatment with interleukin 2 and lymphokine
activated killer cells. In Annals of Internal Medicine, 107, 293 300. File, S.E., and Sister, R.G. (1982).
Do lorazepam induced deficits in learning result from impaired rehearsal, reduced motivation, or
increased sedation? In British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 14, 545-550. Griffiths, A.N., Jones,
D.M., and Richens, A. (1986) Zopiclone produces effects on human performance similar to
Flurazepam, lormetazepam, and triazolam. In British Journal of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 21,
647-653.
17
Pocock, D.A., and Landauer, A.A. (1982) Oxprendol reduces transient stress. In Medical Journal of
Australia, 2 13
Reproduced from 1989 Conference Proceedings, pp. 180-185
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Challenges
What position or positions will we as individuals and perhaps as a field take on g these topics? How
informed are we to dialogue in these realms? What role should we play, if any, vis-à-vis these issues?
During the l990s and beyond the arenas explored in this paper may form larger curricular (i.e., in the sense
of agenda) issues for the field. In addition to the questions raised throughout the paper, a variety of general
challenges abound relevant to biotechnology and lifelong learning. First, it behoves us - it seems - to learn
as much as we can about existing discoveries in these areas and to enter into dialogue with researchers and
others in these arenas. A critical understanding of the basic research upon which claims are based would
seem like an essential first step before singing its praises or withdrawing from its complexity. Once this
feat is accomplished - and it would have to be a continual process - one might work in partnership in some
form or manner- with interdisciplinary colleagues to: (1) raise questions which researchers in the
biotechnological arena might help us answer; (2) develop strategies as to how present and future research
and innovations might be useful in helping us understand the many nuances of how adults learn; (3)
action-wise proactively intervene or initiate public policy discussions vis-à-vis consumer education and
other matters; (4) having thoroughly considered caution and caveats as well as potential of the emerging
technologies, generate practical applications for the field. These it seems are only some of the larger
curricular (i.e. agenda) issues which challenge the field of adult education world-wide during the 1990s .
and beyond.
Further references
Anderson , N.C. (1988, March) Brain imaging: applications in psychiatry. In Science, 239 (4846), 13811388
Guellette, D.G., and Hanson, C. (1987) Psychotechnology as instructional technology and systems for a
deliberate change in consciousness. Paper presented at the Conference of Association for educational
Communication and Technology, Atlanta, GA, February 26-March 1987. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. 285 539).
Strupp, B., et al. (1983) Neurohypophyseal hormones and cognition. In Pharmacological Therapy, 23,
267-279.
Test drug seems to improve Alzheimer’s disease. (1986). In Drug Topics, 130, 38, 42.
Reproduced from 1989 Conference Proceedings, pp. 180-185
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