Download The Dnieper (Kiev-Chernigov) School of Architecture of the 12th and

The Dnieper (Kiev-Chernigov) School of Architecture of the 12th and the early 13th Centuries
In the 1120s-30s, the division of Rus' into separate principalities became a reality; the new social and
political situation created new conditions for the development of art and culture. This, first of all,
affected architecture - an art form that is above all connected with social life. The new stage in the
history of Old Russian architecture in the 12th and the early 13th centuries was marked by the
appearance of local, or, as we say now, regional architectural styles. These are often called "schools",
thus emphasizing their distinctive and consistent identity, manifest both in style and in the imaginative
structure of the monuments belonging to a certain school.
Political disunity resulted in the disunity within the sphere of the arts. Here of course we speak about a
relative separation, for the foundations of culture during this period remained common for the whole of
Rus'. They had been laid in the previous period. The basis for the development of architecture in the 12th
and the early 13th centuries on the territory of all Rus' was still the architecture of the late 10th to the
early 12th centuries. The evolution of this art form became more complex, more diverse, but stylistic and
imaginative innovations remained within the framework of the established architectural typology.
Stone buildings were founded, as before, by the secular and religious leaders. Princes still were leading
in the number of buildings erected. In the second half of the 12th century, in Novgorod, private persons
and their associations also asserted themselves as builders of stone constructions. The researchers have
identified connections between separate teams of builders (artels, as they were called) with a certain
prince, his rule in a particular principality, and his move to rule in a different principality. The team of
builders connected with a particular prince could follow him to his new principality. In other cases an
artel could be created through recruitment.
We do not know much about builders of that time. We know the names of just four architects from the
12th century. Master Petr, who built the Cathedral of St. George in the Yuriev Monastery, used to work
in Novgorod in the early 12th century. At the end of the 12th century, the chronicler names a certain
Korov Yakovich, a master from Lubyanaya Street, as the builder of the Church of St. Cyril near Novgorod.
The Life of St. Euphrosyne of Polotsk mentions a certain "steward over the church workers" called Ioann
(Ivan) who supervised the construction of the Transfiguration Cathedral at the Polotsk Convent of St.
Euphrosyne. Finally, the builder of the retaining wall in the Vydubychi Monastery near Kiev was Petr
Milaneg, mentioned in the chronicle for the year 1199.
Unlike in the late 10th and 11th centuries, invitations of builders from Byzantium had become quite rare.
Only in certain cases, and even that hypothetically, we can suggest a possible participation of a
Byzantine master. Creating a local workforce of skilled builders in Rus' was a sign of the time. This
development determined, first of all, the distinct features of architectural schools in the 12th and the
early 13th centuries. Another factor that influenced the architecture of this period was the use of local
building materials and the diverse methods of their application.
Taking into account the technical-technological and stylistic features, we can distinguish the following
architectural schools in the 12th and the early 13th centuries:
the Dnieper (Kiev-Chernigov) School;
the Polotsk School;
the Smolensk School;
the Grodno School;
the Halych School;
the Vladimir-Suzdal School;
the Novgorod School.
Even though the scene of stone construction in this period is notable for its considerable variety and
though the characteristics of buildings created by neighbouring schools are identifiable at first glance,
nevertheless, the dynamics of architectural development of all these schools has certain common
features:
Construction becomes more intensive by the end of the 12th century;
The cross-domed type of the church in the 12th century is significantly simplified; we can see the
predominance of relatively small four-pillared churches;
By the end of the 12th century, architectural schools show a general tendency towards a tower-shaped
church with pronounced emphasis on its height, the latter dominating over its dimensions in plan.
It is important to note the existing differences in condition of monuments belonging to different
schools. Among the extant monuments the majority belong to the Dnieper, the Vladimir-Suzdal, and
especially the Novgorod schools. Buildings representing other schools have survived to a much lesser
extent. The majority of buildings belonging to the Polotsk, the Smolensk, the Grodno and the Halych
schools are known only through the data of architectural and archaeological research.
Let us turn to the buildings of the so called Dnieper, or Kiev-Chernigov, school. Stylistically, architectural
monuments of Kiev, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl, Lutz, Vladimir-Volynsky, Ryazan and Smolensk (up to the
1180s) belong to this school. In the 1140s-50s, the leading architectural centers were Kiev and
Chernigov. It was here that the main body of skilled builders was created. Let me emphasize once again
that it was the prince's commission that played the most important role in local stone construction.
Noticeable changes in Kiev and Chernigov architecture happen as early as in the 1120s-30s. The last
building that was by most criteria connected with the previous period is the Church of Transfiguration in
Berestovo. The further stone churches - the Church of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary Pirogoscha in
the Podol district of Kiev, the Church of St. George in Kaniv, the Church of St. Cyril - show common
features of a new technical and stylistic identity. First of all, the masonry technique is different: the
churches mentioned above, and later on also other buildings of the Dnieper school, were built entirely
of plnifa brick (flat brick) without using stone, which had been usual before. This plinfa brick masonry is
a bricklaying method with regular-coursed pattern, i.e. it does not use the "hidden" layer (course) typical
from the late 10th to the early 12th centuries. The binding remains the same - lime mortar with added
crushed brick. The new masonry technique is used in all buildings of the Dnieper school and can be
regarded as a distinctive feature of its technical and technological identity.
The Kiev Church of the Assumption in the Podol is usually dated 1131-1135. But it was built on the site
of an earlier church, remains of which were exposed by excavations. The church was demolished in the
1930s; the full reconstruction of its 12th century shape dates back to the end of the 20th century.
This is a six-pillared, one-domed church, with a compact spatial composition. Typologically, it follows the
tradition of the 11th and the early 12th centuries, but it looks simpler if compared to, say, the Church of
the Transfiguration in Berestovo. Stylistic innovations can be seen in the following details:
Massive semi-columns with ordinary lesenes (pilaster strips) divide the facades in accordance with its
internal structure;
There is blind arcading below the zakomari;
Recessed portals have simplified detailing.
Such elements are repeated in the well-preserved Church of St. George in Kaniv, laid down in 1144.
Keep in mind that buildings of that time no longer have stair towers: passage to the choir loft is built
inside the walls. In the Church of St. George, the staircase to the choir loft was inside the northern wall.
The Kiev Church of St. Cyril was built in the 1140s. The exterior of the church was distorted by the
buildings dating back from the 17th to the 19th centuries; however, the walls, the pillars and wall arches
belong to the Old Russian period and use the regular-course masonry. The church has six pillars; the
staircase to the choir loft is built into the wall; the side arms of the choir loft are moved forward by one
division to the east. From the north and the south, the church was adjoined by small buildings. The
interior of the church has partially-preserved mural paintings.
Kiev buildings of the second half of the 12th and the early 13th centuries are known only by
archaeological data. Among the four-pillared churches of this time one should pay particular attention
to the Church on Voznesensky Descent in Kiev (probably the Church of St. Basil built in 1197). This small
church has retained its old walls up to the height of one meter. The pillars are widely spaced. The side
apses are deeply buried into the eastern wall and are not perceived from the outside. Then facades are
divided by the clustered, intricately shaped pilasters. Judging by these characteristics, the church can be
included into the group of tower-shaped buildings of the late 12th and the early 13th centuries. The best
preserved building of this type is the Pyatnitskaya Church in Chernigov.
A rare type of building in Kievan Rus', a rotunda that was uncovered by excavations stands alone among
other Kiev buildings. Possibly, this is the remains of a Catholic church erected by local builders on
commission from foreigners living in Kiev.
Chernigov buildings of the early 12th century are similar to Kiev ones typologically and stylistically. These
are the Assumption Cathedral of the Eletsky Monastery and the Church of Sts. Boris and Gleb in the
Detinets. The architectural typology and the dedication of the Eletsky Monastery can be traced back to
the Assumption Cathedral of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra. But its overall composition is simpler; the
masonry technique is regular-coursed, i.e. it falls within the tradition of the 12th century as do its
decorative elements. The church has survived in good condition but with alterations of the interior
dating back to the 17th century.
The Church of Std. Boris and Gleb is dated the 1120s. The building has retained its original structure. The
losses are mostly located in the upper parts of the church. The after-war restoration returned to the
church its original look. Like other buildings of its time, the Church of Sts. Boris and Gleb is a six-pillared
construction with three apses and one dome. Its stylistic features are typical of the Dnieper school
(regular-coursed masonry, semi-columns with lesenes on the facades, blind arcading, a recessed portal).
The depth of the foundation - approximately 2.4 m. Below the foundation, we find traces of wooden
substructures typical of the 11th century tradition. The floor of the sanctuary is made of glazed tiles; in
other parts of the church - of slates. Excavations have uncovered a gallery adjoining the church on the
north and the west, and in the south - remains of a vestibule and a small church without pillars, which
were close in time to the main building.
The Church of St. Michael (1174) and the Church of the Annunciation (1186), which have also been
uncovered by excavations, date back to the second half of the 12th century. The latter church impressed
one with its enormous dimensions, its six-pillared main building surrounded with galleries from the
north-west and the south. Lead was used as roofing material. Part of the mosaic floor (the peacock
inside a circle) has been found, as well as pieces of fresco plaster and carved white-stone elements.
A great contrast to the Church of the Annunciation was the Church of the Prophet Elijah at the cave
monastery in the Boldin Mountains. This is a small church (13 x 7.5 m in plan), without pillars, with one
apse and a vestibule along the whole expanse of the western facade. The church is dated within a wide
time range - from the 1070s to the beginning of the 13th century. The regular-coursed masonry makes
the later date more feasible.
Perhaps the most remarkable building in the 12th century Chernigov is the Church of St. Paraskeva
Pyatnitsa (Pyatnitskaya Church) in the Market that is dated the late 12th and the early 13th centuries.
The church was heavily damaged during WWII. It was fully restored in its original form after the war.
The four-pillared base (16 x 12m in plan) supports an elegant building of about 24 m high, with three
apses and one dome. The tops of the facades are trefoil-shaped (the side parts are quarter-circular and
the central zakomara is semi-circular). The dynamics of the facade tops is emphasized by semicircularshaped decorative arches at the base of the drum. The triple rounded shape of the crowning parts
makes the top of the building really spectacular. The wall arches inside the church are placed above the
vaults. This strengthens the dynamics of the upper part and creates a precondition of a kind for the
rhythm of the stepped roof outside.
The Church of St. Paraskeva Pyatnitsa is a tower-shaped church. When this type was included in the
research, it radically changed the understanding of the architecture that existed at the end of the 12th
and the beginning of the 13th centuries, and not only in Chernigov but in the whole of Rus'. This shape
marks a key result of the transformation of the Byzantine heritage by the builders of Old Rus'. There is a
hypothesis that the Pyatnitskaya Church was built by Petr Milaneg, the architect of Prince Rurik
Rostislavich.
Churches similar in design to the Pyatnitskaya Church have been discovered in Putivl and NovgorodSeversky. The influence of Chernigov architecture is apparent in the buildings of Ryazan. Excavations
conducted at the site of Old Ryazan have revealed three churches: the Church of Sts. Boris and Gleb, the
Church of the Assumption, and the Church of the Transfiguration of Our Saviour.
Technologically and stylistically, the first two are very similar to the Chernigov buildings of the early 12th
century and are dated 1120s-30s. The remains of the Church of Sts. Boris and Gleb were exposed as
early as 1836 by the "merchant's son" Tikhomirov. The Church of the Assumption was studied in the
Soviet time. The Ryazan churches almost by all criteria are similar to the Chernigov cathedral of the
Eletsky Monastery and the Cathedral of Sts. Boris and Gleb. Among the analogues we can also name the
Kiev churches: the Assumption Cathedral in the Podol and the Church of St. Cyril. Fragments of whitestone carvings used to decorate the facades of the building, which were found during the excavations,
point at certain differences characteristic of the Ryazan churches. Most probably, the appearance of
white-stone carvings was connected with the influence of the white-stone architecture in the
neighbouring Vladimir-Suzdal land. The Ryazan Cathedral of Our Savior is dated the end of the 12th
century, basing on the remains discovered by the archaeologists. It can probably be described as a
tower-shaped building.
Excavations have discovered two churches in Pereyaslavl-Yuzhny, dating back to the middle and the
second half of the 12th century; they were most probably built by Kiev-Chernigov builders. A similar
tradition is manifest in the churches of Turov and Lutsk. They are known by archaeological data.
It is necessary to emphasize the importance of technical-technological information for determining the
general picture of construction in the 12th century. On the basis of architectural and archaeological
analysis, the researchers determine the type of the building, the masonry technique used,
characteristics of building materials, which, in its turn, makes it possible to find similarities between
monuments, which are sometimes placed far from each other, and draw conclusions about the
movements of building teams, their technical and stylistic identity.
The Kiev-Chernigov architectural tradition can be found among the buildings of Vladimir-Volynsky. The
main church of the city is the Assumption Cathedral built in 1156-1160. The church is well-preserved and
it was successfully restored at the beginning of the 20th century. In plan, the Assumption Cathedral
follows the Kiev-Chernigov model of the 1120s-30s that is already familiar to us. This is a six-pillared,
one-domed church. The absence of visible alterations, the clarity of original forms, the imposing size
(20.6 x 34.5 m) create a strong impression. Semi-columns of the facades, portals, blind arcading and
other elements of the composition clearly show the connection with the buildings in Kiev and Chernigov.
By excavations we know a church similar to the Assumption Cathedral but of smaller dimensions. This is
the so called Old Cathedra, presumably the church dedicated to St. Feodor.
Stone construction in Smolensk started in the 12th century, with the building of the Assumption
Cathedral founded in 1101 by Vladimir Monomakh. The church did not survive. In the 1140s, stone
construction was renewed. Builders most probably came from the Kiev-Chernigov region. The hand of
Kiev-Chernigov masters is evidenced by the remains of the Sts. Boris and Gleb (Borisoglebsky)
Monastery on the Smyadyn River close to the Old Smolensk. The large six-pillared church with galleries
was built with the use of regular-coursed masonry, and it possessed all the technical and stylistic
features known to us from other buildings of the Dnieper school. The two surviving (though to a
different degree) monuments of old Smolensk architecture date back to the middle and the third
quarter of the 12th century. These are the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul and the Church of St. John the
Evangelist.
The Church of Sts. Peter and Paul is fully preserved and was carefully restored after the war by Petr
Baranovsky. In accordance with the spirit of the time and following the evolution of the cross-domed
form, the Church of Sts. Peter and Paul is a four-pillared building. The churches of the second half of the
12th century represent the cross-domed form in its six-pillared version.
The facades of the church were not whitewashed, nor were they finished in stucco. The regular-coursed
plinfa masonry, the brickwork embellishments (blind arcading, crosses, the begunets — ornamental
masonry forming a horizontal pattern on the surface of the wall in the form of triangles, alternately
facing peaks up and down), flat lesenes of the apses and small niches create the ornate look of the
building. I would like to mention here that at the butt-ends of plinfa bricks, just like in other monuments
of the Dnieper school, one can find embossed symbols that were used to mark batches of bricks at the
place of production.
The Church of St. John the Evangelist on the other side of the Dnieper is not so well preserved either
inside or outside. The studies have shown that in all its characteristics the church was very similar to the
Church of Sts. Peter and Paul.
To the west from the Church of St. John the Evangelist, the remains of a rotunda belonging to the 1170s80s was discovered. Typologically, this building apparently falls outside the framework of Old Russian
architecture. The type of building, as we know, was always chosen by the patron who commissioned it.
In this case, the patrons were foreign merchants living in Smolensk, who commissioned local builders to
erect this round building with four closely placed pillars inside.
Until the 1180s, building in Smolensk had been developing within the Kiev-Chernigov tradition. The
distinct Smolensk school of architecture had developed only by the end of the 12th century.