Download From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_slave_trade In most African

From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_slave_trade
In most African societies, there was very little difference between the free peasants
and the feudal vassal peasants. Vassals of the Songhay Empire were used primarily
in agriculture; they paid tribute to their masters in crop and service but they were
slightly restricted in custom and convenience. These non-free people were more an
occupational caste, as their bondage was relative.[2].
There is adequate evidence citing case after case of African control of segments of
the trade. Several African nations such as the Ashanti of Ghana and the Yoruba of
Nigeria had economies largely depending on the trade. African peoples such as the
Imbangala of Angola and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania would serve as intermediaries
or roving bands warring with other African nations to capture Africans for Europeans.
Extenuating circumstances demanding exploration are the tremendous efforts
European officials in Africa used to install rulers agreeable to their interests. They
would actively favor one African group against another to deliberately ignite chaos
and continue their slaving activities.[3].
"Slavery", as it is often referred to by people, in African cultures was generally more
like indentured servitude: "slaves" were not made to be chattel of other men, nor
enslaved for life. African "slaves" were paid wages and were able to accumulate
property. They often bought their own freedom and could then achieve social
promotion -just as freedman in ancient Rome- some even rose to the status of kings
(e.g. Jaja of Opobo and Sunni Ali Ber). Similar arguments were used by Western
slave owners during the time of abolition, for example by John Wedderburn in
Wedderburn v. Knight, the case that ended legal recognition of slavery in Scotland in
1776. Regardless of the legal options open to slave owners, rational cost-earning
calculation and/or voluntary adoption of moral restraints often tended to mitigate
(except with traders, who preferred to weed out the worthless weak individuals) the
actual fate of slaves throughout history.
In Senegambia, between 1300 and 1900, close to one-third of the population was
enslaved. In early Islamic states of the western Sudan, including Ghana (750-1076),
Mali (1235–1645), Segou (1712–1861), and Songhai (1275-1591), about a third of
the population were slaves. In Sierra Leone in the 19th century about half of the
population consisted of slaves. In the 19th century at least half the population was
enslaved among the Duala of the Cameroon, the Igbo and other peoples of the
lower Niger, the Kongo, and the Kasanje kingdom and Chokwe of Angola. Among
the Ashanti and Yoruba a third of the population consisted of slaves. The population
of the Kanem (1600–1800) was about a third-slave. It was perhaps 40% in Bornu
(1580–1890). Between 1750 and 1900 from one- to two-thirds of the entire
population of the Fulani jihad states consisted of slaves. The population of the
Sokoto caliphate formed by Hausas in the northern Nigeria and Cameroon was halfslave in the 19th century. It is estimated that up to 90% of the population of ArabSwahili Zanzibar was enslaved. Roughly half the population of Madagascar was
enslaved.[4][5][6][7][8][9]
[edit]
Slavery in Ethiopia
Ethiopian slavery was essentially domestic. Slaves thus served in the houses of
their masters or mistresses, and were not employed to any significant extent for
productive purposes, slaves were thus regarded as second-class members of their
owners' family[10], and were fed, clothed and protected. Women were taken as sex
slaves. They generally roamed around freely and conducted business as free
people. They had complete freedom of religion and culture.[11] First attempt to
abolish slavery was made by Emperor Tewodros II (r. 1855-1868)[12], although slave
trade was not abolished completely until 1923 with Ethiopia's ascension to the
League of Nations.[13] Anti-Slavery Society estimated there were 2,000,000 slaves in
the early 1930s, out of an estimated population of between 8 and 16 million.[14]
Slavery continued in Ethiopia until the Italian invasion in October 1935, when was
abolished by order of the Italian occupying forces.[15] In response to pressure by
Western Allies of World War II Ethiopia officially abolished slavery and involuntary
servitude after regained its independence in 1942.[16][17] On August 26, 1942 Haile
Selassie issued a proclamation outlawing slavery.[18]
[edit]
Slavery in Somalia
The Bantus are the descendants of people from various ethnic groups in what is
modern-day Tanzania, Malawi and Mozambique who were brought to Somalia as
slaves in the 19th century. It is estimated that the Bantu in Somalia number around
600,000 out of a total population of over 11 million. Contrary to the Somali, who are
for the most part nomadic herders, the Bantu are mainly sedentary farmers. Bantus
have darker skin and are shorter and more muscular with broader features and
kinkier hair than the Somalis. During the Somali Civil War, many Bantu were evicted
from their farms by various armed factions of Somali clans.[19]
[edit]
Slavery in North Africa
The medieval slave trade in Europe was mainly to the East and South: Byzantine
Empire and the Muslim World were the destinations, pagan Central and Eastern
Europe an important source.[20][21] Slavery in medieval Europe was so common that
the Roman Catholic Church repeatedly prohibited it—or at least the export of
Christian slaves to non-Christian lands was prohibited at, for example, the Council of
Koblenz in 922, the Council of London in 1102, and the Council of Armagh in
1171.[22] Because of religious constraints, the slave trade was monopolised by
Iberian Jews (known as Radhanites) who were able to transfer the slaves from
pagan Central Europe through Christian Western Europe to Muslim countries in AlAndalus and Africa.[23] So many Slaves were enslaved for so many centuries that the
very name 'slave' derived from their name; not only in English, but in other European
languages and in Arabic.[24]
Mamluks were slave soldiers who converted to Islam and served the Muslim caliphs
and the Ayyubid sultans during the Middle Ages. The first mamluks served the
Abbasid caliphs in 9th century Baghdad. Over time they became a powerful military
caste, and on more than one occasion they seized power for themselves, for
example, ruling Egypt in the from 1250-1517. From 1250 Egypt had been ruled by
the Bahri dynasty of Kipchak Turk origin. White slaves from the Caucasus served in
the army and formed an elite corp of troops eventually revolting in Egypt to form the
Burgi dynasty.[25]
According to Robert Davis between 1 million and 1.25 million Europeans were
captured by Barbary pirates and sold as slaves to North Africa and the Ottoman
Empire between the 16th and 19th centuries. The coastal villages and towns of Italy,
Portugal, Spain and Mediterranean islands were frequently attacked by them and
long stretches of the Italian and Spanish coasts were almost completely abandoned
by its inhabitants; after 1600 Barbary pirates occasionally entered the Atlantic and
struck as far north as Iceland. The most famous corsairs were the Ottoman
Barbarossa ("Redbeard"), and his older brother Oruç, Turgut Reis (known as Dragut
in the West), Kurtoğlu (known as Curtogoli in the West), Kemal Reis, Salih Reis and
Koca Murat Reis.[26][27]
In 1544, Khair ad Din captured the Ischia, taking 4,000 prisoners in the process, and
deported to slavery some 9,000 inhabitants of Lipari, almost the entire population.[28]
In 1551, Dragut enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island Gozo, between
5,000 and 6,000, sending them to Libya. When pirates sacked Vieste in southern
Italy in 1554 they took an 7,000 slaves. In 1555, Turgut Reis sailed to Corsica and
ransacked Bastia, taking 6000 prisoners. In 1558 Barbary corsairs captured the
town of Ciutadella, destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and carried off 3,000
survivors to Istanbul as slaves.[29] In 1563 Turgut Reis landed at the shores of the
province of Granada, Spain, and captured the coastal settlements in the area like
Almuñécar, along with 4,000 prisoners. Barbary pirates frequently attacked the
Balearic islands, resulting in many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches being
erected. The threat was so severe that Formentera became uninhabited.[30][31]
Sahrawi-Moorish society in Northwest Africa was traditionally (and still is, to some
extent) stratified into several tribal castes, with the Hassane warrior tribes ruling and
extracting tribute - horma - from the subservient Berber-descended znaga tribes.
The so-called Haratin lower class, largely sedentary oasis-dwelling black people,
have been considered natural slaves in Sahrawi-Moorish society.[32][33][34]
[edit]
Slaves taken from Africa
[edit]
Trans Saharan trade
Main article Arab slave trade
The very earliest external slave trade was the trans-Saharan slave trade. Although
there had long been some trading up the Nile River and very limited trading across
the western desert, the transportation of large numbers of slaves did not become
viable until camels were introduced from Arabia in the 10th century. By this point, a
trans-Saharan trading network came into being to transport slaves north. It has been
estimated that from the 10th to the 19th century some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were
transported north each year.[35] Frequent intermarriages meant that the slaves were
assimilated in North Africa. Unlike in the Americas, slaves in North Africa were
mainly servants and soldiers rather than labourers, and a greater number of females
than males were taken, who were often employed as servants for the women of
harems.[36] It was also not uncommon to turn male slaves, both African and
European, into eunuchs to serve as guardians to the harems.[37] The Moroccan
Sultan Moulay Ismail "the Bloodthirsty" (1672-1727) raised a corps of 150,000 black
slaves, called his Black Guard, who coerced the country into submission.[38]
[edit]
Indian Ocean trade
13th century slave market in the Yemen
The trade in slaves across the Indian Ocean also has a long history beginning with
the control of sea routes by Afro-Arab traders in the ninth century. It is estimated that
only a few thousand slaves were taken each year from the Red Sea and Indian
Ocean coast. They were sold throughout the Middle East. This trade accelerated as
superior ships led to more trade and greater demand for labour on plantations in the
region. Eventually, tens of thousands per year were being taken.[39]. The majority of
the Arabs responsible for the slave trade in East Africa were blacks themselves.
Afro-Arabs were Africans who had adopted Arab culture and language. [40]
David Livingstone wrote of the slave trade: "To overdraw its evils is a simple
impossibility.... We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and
lying on the path. [Onlookers] said an Arab who passed early that morning had done
it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk
any longer. We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead.... We came
upon a man dead from starvation.... The strangest disease I have seen in this
country seems really to be broken heartedness, and it attacks free men who have
been captured and made slaves." Livingstone estimated that 80,000 Africans died
each year before ever reaching the slave markets of Zanzibar.[41][42][43][44] Zanzibar
was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th
century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.[45]
Some sources estimate that between 11 and 17 million slaves crossed the Red Sea,
Indian Ocean, and Sahara Desert from 650 to 1900.[46][47]
[edit]
Atlantic Ocean trade
Main article Atlantic slave trade
The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view
of the subject.
Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.
The first Europeans to arrive on the coast of Guinea were the Portuguese; the first
European to actually buy African slaves in the region of Guinea was Antão
Gonçalves, a Portuguese explorer. Originally interested in trading mainly for gold
and spices, they set up colonies on the uninhabited islands of São Tomé. In the 16th
century the Portuguese settlers found that these volcanic islands were ideal for
growing sugar. Sugar growing is a labour-intensive undertaking and Portuguese
settlers were difficult to attract due to the heat, lack of infrastructure, and hard life.
To cultivate the sugar the Portuguese turned to large numbers of African slaves.
Elmina Castle on the Gold Coast, originally built by African labor for the Portuguese
in 1482 to control the gold trade, became an important depot for slaves that were to
be transported to the New World.[48]
The first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World were the Spaniards who
sought auxiliaries for their conquest expeditions and laborers on islands such as
Cuba and Hispaniola, where the alarming death rate in the native population had
spurred the first royal laws protecting the native population (Laws of Burgos, 15121513). The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501.[49]
In 1452, Pope Nicholas V issued the papal bull Dum Diversas, granting Afonso V of
Portugal the right to reduce any "Saracens, pagans and any other unbelievers" to
hereditary slavery. This approval of slavery was reaffirmed and extended in his
Romanus Pontifex bull of 1455. These papal bulls came to serve as a justification for
the subsequent era of slave trade and European colonialism.[citation needed] However
Pope Eugene IV in his bull, Sicut Dudum of 1435 had condemned the enslavement
of the black inhabitants of the Canary Islands. Pope Paul III in 1537 issued an
additional Bull, Sublimis Deus, declaring that all peoples, even those outside the
faith should not be deprived of their liberty. The followers of the church of England
and Protestants did not use the papal bulls as a justification for their involvement in
slavery.
Increasing penetration into the Americas by the Portuguese created more demand
for labour in Brazil--primarily for farming and mining. Slave-based economies quickly
spread to the Caribbean and the southern portion of what is today the United States,
where Dutch traders brought the first African slaves in 1620. These areas all
developed an insatiable demand for slaves. As European nations grew more
powerful, especially Portugal, Spain, France, England and the Netherlands, they
began vying for control of the African slave trade, with little effect on the local African
and Arab trading. Great Britain's existing colonies in the Lesser Antilles and their
effective naval control of the Mid Atlantic forced other countries to abandon their
enterprises due to inefficiency in cost. The English crown provided a charter giving
the Royal African Company monopoly over the African slave routes until 1712.[50]
The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of
slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These
expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms against weaker African
tribes and peoples. These mass slavers included the Oyo empire (Yoruba), Kong
Empire, Kingdom of Benin, Kingdom of Fouta Djallon, Kingdom of Fouta Tooro,
Kingdom of Koya, Kingdom of Khasso, Kingdom of Kaabu, Fante Confederacy,
Ashanti Confederacy, and the kingdom of Dahomey. Europeans rarely entered the
interior of Africa, due to fear of disease and moreover fierce African resistance.[51][52]
Before the arrival of the Portuguese, slavery had already existed in Kingdom of
Kongo. Despite its establishment within his kingdom, Afonso I of Kongo believed
that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. When he suspected the
Portuguese of receiving illegally enslaved persons to sell, he wrote letters to the
King João III of Portugal in 1526 imploring him to put a stop to the practice.[53]
The kings of Dahomey sold their war captives into transatlantic slavery, who
otherwise would have been killed in a ceremony known as the Annual Customs. As
one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular
with neighbouring peoples.[54][55][56] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso
kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. A family's status
was indicated by the number of slaves it owned, leading to wars for the sole purpose
of taking more captives. This trade led the Khasso into increasing contact with the
European settlements of Africa's west coast, particularly the French.[57] Benin grew
increasingly rich during the 16th and 17th centuries on the slave trade with Europe;
slaves from enemy states of the interior were sold, and carried to the Americas in
Dutch and Portuguese ships. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as
the "Slave Coast".[58]
King Gezo of Dahomey said in 1840's:
The slave trade is the ruling principle of my people. It is the source and the glory of
their wealth…the mother lulls the child to sleep with notes of triumph over an enemy
reduced to slavery…[59]
In 1807, the UK Parliament passed the Bill that abolished the trading of slaves. The
King of Bonny (now in Nigeria) was horrified at the conclusion of the practice:
We think this trade must go on. That is the verdict of our oracle and the priests. They
say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God
himself.[60]
Source of slave
All three slave-trading routes tapped into local trading patterns. Europeans or Arabs
in Africa very rarely mounted expeditions to capture slaves. Lack of people and the
prevalence of disease prevented any widespread gathering of slaves by Europeans
and other non-Africans. Local rulers were very rarely open to allowing groups of
armed foreigners to enter their lands.[61] It was far easier and more common to make
use of existing African middlemen and slave traders. Slavery has been present in
Africa for millennia, and still is today even with children, though some historians
prefer to describe African slavery as feudalism, arguing it was more like the serfdom
system that controlled the peasantry of Western Europe during the Middle Ages or
Russia into the 19th century than slavery as it was practiced in the Americas.[62]
The slaves came from many different sources. About half came from the societies
that sold them. These might be criminals, heretics, the mentally ill, the indebted and
any others that had fallen out of favour with the rulers. Little is known about the
details of theses practices before the arrival of Europeans, and so it is difficult to tell
if the number of people considered as undesirables was artificially increased to
provide more slaves for export. It is believed that capital punishment in the region
nearly disappeared since prisoners became far too valuable to dispose of in such a
way.[63]
Another source of slaves, comprising about half the total, came from military
conquests of other states or tribes. It has long been contended that the slave trade
greatly increased violence and warfare in the region due to the pursuit of slaves, but
it is hard to provide evidence to prove this; tribal warfare was certainly common even
before slave hunting had added such an extra inducement.[64]
For the Atlantic slave trade, captives purchased from slave dealers in West African
regions known as the Slave Coast, Gold Coast, and Côte d'Ivoire were sold into
slavery as a result of a defeat in warfare. In the Bight of Biafra near modern-day
Senegal and Benin, some African kings sold their captives locally and later to
European slave traders for goods such as metal cookware, rum, livestock, and seed
grain. Previous to the voyage, the victims were held in "slave castles" and deep pits
where many died from multiple illnesses and malnutrition. Conditions were even
worse in the Middle Passage across the Atlantic where up to a third of the slaves
died en route.
Elikia M’bokolo, April 1998, Le Monde diplomatique. Quote:"The African continent
was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through
the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten
centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the
nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another
four million through the Swahili ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine
million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million
(depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"[65]
Effects
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Effect on the economy of Africa
Few scholars dispute the harm done to the slaves themselves, but the effect of the
trade on African societies is much debated due to the apparent influx of capital to
Africans. Proponents of the slave trade, such as Archibald Dalzel, argued that
African societies were robust and not much affected by the ongoing trade. In the
19th century, European abolitionists, most prominently Dr. David Livingston, took the
opposite view arguing that the fragile local economy and societies were being
severely harmed by the ongoing trade. This view continued with scholars until the
1960s and 70s such as Basil Davidson, who conceded it might have had some
benefits while still acknowledging its largely negative impact on Africa.[66] Historian
Walter Rodney estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an
estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own
people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on Britishmade firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol.
Today, however, some scholars assert that slavery did not have a wholly disastrous
effect on those left behind in Africa.[67] Slaves were an expensive commodity, and
traders received a great deal in exchange for each slave. At the peak of the slave
trade, it is said that hundreds of thousands of muskets, vast quantities of cloth,
gunpowder and metals were being shipped to Guinea. Guinea's trade with Europe at
the peak of the slave trade—which also included significant exports of gold and
ivory—was some 3.5 million pounds Sterling per year. By contrast, the trade of the
United Kingdom, the economic superpower of the time, was about 14 million pounds
per year over this same period of the late 18th century. As Patrick Manning has
pointed out, the vast majority of items traded for slaves were common rather than
luxury goods. Textiles, iron ore, currency, and salt were some of the most important
commodities imported as a result of the slave trade, and these goods were spread
within the entire society raising the general standard of living.[68] In contrast, other
scholars find that the trade in slave had a detrimental effect on long-term economic
growth and development. Although the evidence suggests a causal effect, the
channel trough which slave trade affects subsequent economic growth and
development is not clear. One likely explanation is that the slave trade impeded the
formation of larger ethnic groups, causing ethnic fractionalization and weaking the
formation of stable political structures.[69]
Effects on Europe’s economy
Eric Williams had attempted to show the contribution of Africans on the basis of
profits from the slave trade and slavery, and the employment of those profits to
finance Britain’s industrialization process. He argues that the enslavement of
Africans was an essential element to the Industrial Revolution, and that European
wealth is a result of slavery. However, he argued that by the time of its abolition it
had lost its profitability and it was in Britain's economic interest to ban it. Seymour
Dreshcer and Robert Antsey have both presented evidence that the slave trade
remained profitable until the end, and that reasons other than economics led to its
cessation. Joseph InikoPornri have shown elsewhere that the British slave trade was
more profitable than the critics of Williams would want us to believe. Nevertheless,
the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations amounted to less than
5% of the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution.[70]
A similar debate has taken place about other European nations. French slave trade
was more profitable than alternative domestic investments and probably encouraged
capital accumulation before the Industrial Revolution and Napoleonic Wars.[71]
Demographics
The demographic effects of the slave trade are some of the most controversial and
debated issues. Tens of millions of people were removed from Africa via the slave
trade, and what effect this had on Africa is an important question. Walter Rodney
argued that the export of so many people had been a demographic disaster and had
left Africa permanently disadvantaged when compared to other parts of the world,
and largely explains that continent's continued poverty.[72] He presents numbers that
show that Africa's population stagnated during this period, while that of Europe and
Asia grew dramatically. According to Rodney all other areas of the economy were
disrupted by the slave trade as the top merchants abandoned traditional industries
to pursue slaving and the lower levels of the population were disrupted by the
slaving itself.
Others have challenged this view. J. D. Fage compared the number effect on the
continent as a whole. David Eltis has compared the numbers to the rate of
emigration from Europe during this period. In the nineteenth century alone over 50
million people left Europe for the Americas, a far higher rate than were ever taken
from Africa.[73]
Others have challenged this view. Joseph E. Inikori argues the history of the region
shows that the effects were still quite deleterious. He argues that the African
economic model of the period was very different from the European, and could not
sustain such population losses. Population reductions in certain areas also led to
widespread problems. Inikori also notes that after the suppression of the slave trade
Africa's population almost immediately began to rapidly increase, even prior to the
introduction of modern medicines.[74] Shahadah also states that the trade was not
only of demographic significance, in aggregate population losses but also in the
profound changes to settlement patterns, epidemiological exposure and
reproductive and social development potential.
In addition, the majority of the slaves being taken to the Americas were male. So
while the slave trade created an immediate drop in the population, its long term
effects were less drastic.[2].
Legacy of racism
Maulana Karenga states that the effects of slavery where "the morally monstrous
destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world,
poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through
this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among people of
today." . He cites that it constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and
human possibility.[75]
Abolition
Beginning in the late 18th century, France was Europe's first country to abolish
slavery, in 1794, but it was revived by Napoleon in 1802, and banned for good in
1848. In 1807 the British Parliament passed the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act,
under which captains of slave ships could be stiffly fined for each slave
transported.[76] This was later superseded by the 1833 Slavery Abolition Act, which
freed all slaves in the British Empire. Abolition was then extended to the rest of
Europe. The 1820 U.S. Law on Slave Trade made slave trading piracy, punishable
by death.[77] In 1827, Britain declares the slave trade piracy, punishable by death.
The power of the Royal Navy was subsequently used to suppress the slave trade,
and while some illegal trade, mostly with Brazil, continued, the Atlantic slave trade
would be eradicated by the middle of the 19th century. The West Africa Squadron
was credited with capturing 1,600 slave ships between 1808 and 1860 and freeing
150,000 Africans who were aboard these ships.[78] Action was also taken against
African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for
example against ‘the usurping King of Lagos’, deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties
were signed with over 50 African rulers.[79]
The Islamic trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean trades continued, however, and even
increased as new sources of slaves became available. In Caucasus, slavery was
abolished after Russian conquest. The slave trade within Africa also increased. The
British Navy could suppress much of the trade in the Indian Ocean, but the
European powers could do little to affect the intra-continental trade.[80]
The continuing anti-slavery movement in Europe became an excuse and a casus
belli for the European conquest and colonisation of much of the African continent. In
the late 19th century, the Scramble for Africa saw the continent rapidly divided
between Imperialistic Europeans, and an early but secondary focus of all colonial
regimes was the suppression of slavery and the slave trade. In response to this
public pressure, Ethiopia officially abolished slavery in 1932. By the end of the
colonial period they were mostly successful in this aim, though slavery is still very
active in Africa even though it has gradually moved to a wage economy.
Independent nations attempting to westernise or impress Europe sometimes
cultivated an image of slavery suppression, even as they, in the case of Egypt, hired
European soldiers like Samuel White Baker's expedition up the Nile. Slavery has
never been eradicated in Africa, and it commonly appears in African states, such as
Chad, Ethiopia, Mali, Niger, and Sudan, in places where law and order have
collapsed.[81]. See also Slavery in modern Africa.
Although outlawed in nearly all countries today slavery is practiced in secret in many
parts of the world.[82] There are an estimated 27 million victims of slavery
worldwide.[83] In Mauritania alone up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20%
of the population, are enslaved, many of them used as bonded labour.[84][85] Slavery
in Mauritania was finally criminalized in August 2007.[86] It is estimated that as many
as 200,000 black Sudanese children and women have been taken into slavery in
Sudan during the Second Sudanese Civil War.[87][88] In Niger, where the practice of
slavery was outlawed in 2003, a study found that almost 8% of the population are
still slaves.[89][90]
Notes
1. ^ The impact of the slave trade on
Africa
2. ^ a b "African Holocaust: Dark
Voyage audio CD". "Owen 'Alik
Shahadah". Retrieved on 2005-0401.
3. ^ "African involvement in Atlantic
Slave Trade". "Kwaku Person-Lynn".
Retrieved on 2004-10-01.
4. ^ Welcome to Encyclopædia
Britannica's Guide to Black History
5. ^ Slow Death for Slavery Cambridge University Press
6. ^ Digital History Slavery Fact Sheets
7. ^ Tanzania - Stone Town of
Zanzibar
8. ^ Fulani slave-raids
9. ^ Central African Republic: History
10. ^ Ethiopia - The Interregnum
11. ^ "Ethiopian Slave Trade".
12. ^ Tewodros II
13. ^ Kituo cha katiba >> Haile Selassie
Profile
14. ^ Twentieth Century Solutions of the
Abolition of Slavery
15. ^ CJO - Abstract - Trading in slaves
in Ethiopia, 1897–1938
16. ^ The slave trade: myths and
preconceptions
17. ^ Ethiopia
18. ^ Chronology of slavery
19. ^ Africa's Lost Tribe Discovers
American Way
20. ^ Historical survey > The
international slave trade
21. ^ Arabs and Slave Trade
22. ^ Slavery, serfdom, and indenture
through the Middle Ages
23. ^ Routes of the Jewish Merchants
Called Radanites
24. ^ How To Reboot Reality — Chapter
2, Labor
25. ^ The Mamluk (Slave) Dynasty
(Timeline)
26. ^ When Europeans were slaves:
Research suggests white slavery
was much more common than
previously believed
27. ^ BBC - History - British Slaves on
the Barbary Coast
28. ^ The mysteries and majesties of
the Aeolian Islands
29. ^ History of Menorca
30. ^ Jefferson Versus the Muslim
Pirates by Christopher Hitchens,
City Journal Spring 2007
31. ^ Davis, Robert. Christian Slaves,
Muslim Masters: White Slavery in
the Mediterranean, the Barbary
Coast and Italy, 1500-1800.[1]
32. ^ Slavery in The Sahara
33. ^ Fair elections haunted by racial
imbalance
34. ^ Caste: One in every 25 people
suffers from caste discrimination
35. ^ Fage, J.D. A History of Africa.
Routledge, 4th edition, 2001. pg.
256
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