Download Chapter 6 The making of western Europe

CHAPTER SIX
THE MAKING OF WESTERN EUROPE
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Often seen as a period of decline, the Early Middle Ages witnessed both continuity from the Roman past as well as
great transformations. The mixing of Germanic, Hunnish, Celtic and Roman peoples changed the social composition
of western Europe. Settlement patterns became more rural as economic production transferred to the countryside,
and new kingdoms emerged. Christianity, especially that formulated in Rome, continued to expand throughout
Europe, and its ecclesiastical structure, itself modeled after Roman Imperial administration, provided stability to both
Church and state. Monasteries provided sanctuaries of peace and learning.
The term "German" does not designate a specific people or culture, but instead a loose linguistic family. Most of
what historians know of the Germans of the time derives from the Roman historian Cornelius Tacitus. Families with
a common ancestry, i.e., groups of relatives, formed a kindred group and kindred groups claiming a common
ancestry, either in myth or in fact, formed a tribe or people. Although German society was highly inegalitarian,
constant warfare allowed women to have a more equal role than her Roman counterpart. Germanic law and
government differed from Roman in a variety of ways. As opposed to Roman law, Germanic law was oral with tribal
elders declaring remembered custom as law. Germanic government was also much more democratic than Roman.
Reference to custom as declared by elders allowed for the participation of freemen in government which limited the
discretionary power of the king.
Historians now understand the “fall” of Rome as a more complex dynamic of invasion accompanied by migration,
settlement, acculturation, and accommodation. Some of the German tribes settled along the borders of the Empire
had been in contact with Roman culture centuries before the "fall" of Rome in 476 and had adopted to varying
degrees Roman language, dress, customs, and modes of economic production. Other tribes living farther away,
however, had been little influenced by Rome. The German migrations which led to settlement or invasion of Rome
resulted from Rome's attractive wealth and splendor as well as the result of the westward migrations of Huns from
central Asia that forced German tribes to seek settlement, and it was hoped protection, inside the Empire. On
entering the Empire, many Germans adopted Roman ways of life and free warriors often intermarried with middleclass Roman families. Germans entered the Roman military (Odovacar was a German) and as they settled in, began
to model Germanic law after Roman. Like many wealthy Romans, Germans tended to favor living in nucleated
villages rather than the city. Through intermarriage cultural differences and lifestyles began to become less and less
different. Just how such a small number of Germans were able in the end to affect such a great transition is still,
however, a matter of great debate among historians.
It must be remembered, however, that the Roman Empire in the East, the Byzantine Empire, continued throughout
the entire European Middle Ages, falling finally to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. The Byzantines considered
themselves the legitimate heirs of the Roman World. The Emperor Constantine had moved the capital of the Empire
to the east in 324 because of its comparative wealth and ease of raising troops and money. Also, at the time, the
Persians, not the Germans, seemed the greatest threat to the Empire. The relative decline of the western Empire
came not through plan but because of the lack of resources in the west to aid in its defense. Justinian also prepared a
systematic codification of Roman Law. The legal systems of most western countries are based on Justinian's Corpus
Iuris Civilis.
Meanwhile, new kingdoms emerged in the west under the leadership of Germanic kings. One aspect that may be a
key to understanding the consolidation of the new Germanic kingdoms, however, is the role of the Roman Church.
Most of the Germanic tribes were Arian Christians. Furthermore, the Arian faith prevented the Roman Church from
giving full support to the new secular order. Although all the Germans eventually converted to Catholic Christianity,
alone among the invading tribes, the Merovingian Franks under Clovis (r. 481-511) converted directly from
paganism to Catholic Christianity. This close relation benefited both the Church by providing a protector against
both Arians and other Germanic tribes, and also benefited the Merovingians by providing a holy sanction to their
rule and providing administrative support to the state. The replacement of the Merovingian Dynasty with the earlyCarolingian Dynasty in 751 (by Pepin the Short who continued the policies of his grandfather Pepin of Heristal, d.
714, and his father Charles Martel, r. 714-741) continued the close links between the rulers of Gaul and the Church.
37
In addition to changes in the political map of Europe, the Early Middle Ages also witnessed innovations in
agriculture that could support a greater population in these new kingdoms. Whereas the Roman Empire depended on
latifundia (plantations using slave labor), in the Early Middle Ages saw the emergence of peasant farms as the basic
unit of agricultural production. This resulted from a combination of factors. One, slave labor proved expensive and
inefficient. Two, many free warriors became full-time farmers. And finally technological innovations such as a
heavy plow (which cultivated the heavier soil of northern Europe), the collared harness (which allowed the more
efficient, and more expensive, horse to pull the plow), and the three-field system (which allowed far more land to be
cultivated during the year as well as increasing the fertility of the fields).
The Church provides a great bridge between the late-classical world of Rome and the Early Middle Ages. During
the fifth and sixth centuries, popes like Leo I (440-461) and Gregory I, the Great, (590-604), played a major role not
only in Church affairs but also in the secular world. These and other Bishops of Rome, building upon the Doctrine
of Petrine Succession in which Jesus Christ endowed the Apostle Peter with building the Church in conjunction with
the prestige of Rome and its center of the Latin world, incrementally built their prestige and authority over the
Catholic Church in western Europe. Gregory also increased the authority of the Bishop of Rome in the west through
his programs of missionary activity to convert Arian Christians as well as pagans to Catholic Christianity. It was
during his pontificate that Visigothic Spain converted to Catholicism and Roman Christianity was reintroduced to
southern Britain. At the same time, in the north of Britain, Irish missionaries converted Anglo-Saxons to Irish
Christianity which differed on the date of Easter as well as other matters from the Roman. At the Council of Whitby
(663) the primacy of the Roman worship, and therefore the authority of the Bishop of Rome, was recognized in the
British Isles.
Greatly contributing to the shaping of the Early Middle Ages was monasticism. Monasticism had been part of
Christianity since St. Anthony who followed an hermetic lifestyle around 285. The harshness and often extreme
behavior of ascetic monasticism led others to extol the a different style of monasticism that involved living in
communities. Living in a community, however, required rules of organization, conduct, and procedures. Many
monastic "rules" circulated during the Early Middle Ages, but St. Benedict of Nursia wrote one around 550,
borrowing from other monastic rules, which would become by the end of the Early Middle Ages the standard and
most widespread monastic rule. Much of the Benedictine Rule's success lies in its flexibility (for example, warmer
clothes for cooler climates and vice versa), organization (an abbot ruled the monastery but in conjunction with the
advice of others, for example), and the requirements that monks perform manual labor by which the monastery could
support itself. The Benedictine Rule also required poverty (i.e., no personal property), chastity, and obedience (to
the abbot). The Rule also demanded stability–that monks remain in the monastery and not wander about without
permission. Monasteries played an essential role in the transmission of both classical and early-Christian learning as
the use of literacy declined in western Europe with the emergence of Germanic oral society. By the seventh century,
if not before, literacy had become confined to monks and nuns of monasteries Because Christianity is a religion of
writing (i.e., scripture), the Rule of Benedict assumed that monks and nuns could read and Benedictine monasteries
usually contained both libraries and scriptoria (writing rooms) for reference and education. Christianity had a
paradoxical view towards pagan classical learning. On the one hand, it was pagan and thus should be avoided. On
the other hand, however, literacy in Latin had to be learned from pagan classical texts because the Church had not
developed either its own educational system or texts.
LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
How could the “Germanization of the Roman Empire” rather than the “Fall of the Roman Empire” more
accurately describe the transition from approximately 300 to 600 A.D. in western Europe?
Explore the culture of the Germanic tribes and compare their values and customs to those of the Romans.
Assign students Tacitus’ Germania. How does Tacitus, as a Roman observor, portray the Germanic tribes?
Compare the kingdoms established by Germanic tribes in Gaul, Italy, Spain, and England. In what ways did
these kingdoms build upon institutions already established under the Roman empire?
What were the strengths of the eastern empire compared to the west, and how did the weakness of the west
contribute to decline of the Roman empire?
Why would the reign of Justinian the Great be considered both a success and a failure?
Consider how technological innovations transformed agriculture between 500 and 900 A.D.
Investigate how the church expanded its authority during the Early Middle Ages.
38
SUPPLEMENTAL FILMS
The Barbarian West. 57 min. Color. 1991. Ambrose Videos. Examines the origins of western civilization from
Greek and Roman perspectives
The Conquest of Spain. 30 min. Color. 1995. Ambrose Video. When Tariq Ibn-Zique crossed the straights of
Gibraltar in 711 he began almost 1000 years of direct Islamic influence into Iberia.
The Dark Ages: Europe after the Fall of Rome (410-1066). 30 min. Color. 1995. United Learning. Takes a broad
overall sweep of events and includes religious and economic transitions and a reconstruction of an AngloSaxon village. Really for younger audiences, but a worthwhile introduction.
Justinian. 30 min. color. 1982. RMI Media. Biography of the last "Great " Emperor and his times.
King Arthur: His Life and Legends ca. 54 min. Color. A&E Biography Series. Good mix of the Arthur of history
and the Arthur of legend.
Medieval Manuscripts. 30 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences. Examines how manuscripts were
produced, the function of the scriptoria, and civilization's debt to the monks who produced these
manuscripts.
MULTIPLE CHOICE
The page numbers listed below indicate the correct answers and their locations in the text.
1.
Greeks and Romans called all foreigners "barbarians" because
a. they were not Christian
b. they did not live in cities
c. they did not reside in the Greek or Roman Empires
d. of their unintelligible languages and strange customs (p.178)
e. of their pagan religious beliefs
2.
Which characteristic best describes the Germanic tribes?
a. they all spoke the same language, the predecessor to modern German
b. they all originated in the area of modern Germany
c. their egalitarian social structure
d. they belonged to the same linguistic group (p.178)
e. uniform culture and religious beliefs.
3.
Many of the Germanic tribes entered the Roman Empire because
a. of pressure put on them by the westward migration of the Huns (p.179)
b. of conversion to Roman Christianity
c. of defeat and enslavement by Roman armies
d. of Viking invasions
e. expansion of the Byzantine Empire forced them to migrate
39
4.
Many of the German tribes practiced what religion before converting to Roman Christianity?
a. Arian Christianity (p.186)
b. Catholic Christianit
c. Eastern (or Orthodox) Christianity
d. Nestorianism
e. Monophysite Christianity
5.
What dynamic best describes the "fall " of the Roman Empire to the Germanic tribes?
a. invasion, settlement, and intermarriage between 200-400 A.D.
b. migration/invasion, conquest, settlement, and intermarriage over several centuries beginning around
300 A.D. (pp.184-185)
c. invasion and conquest in the sixth century.
d. defeat of the Roman army by the Frankish army of Clovis in 406 A.D.
e. Justinian the Great's conquest of Rome, Italy, and Spain.
6.
The Visigothic defeat of the Byzantine army at Adrianople in 378 demonstrated the superiority of
a. Germanic military strategy
b. siege warfare over infantry
c. mounted warrior over infantry (p.180)
d. infantry over cavalry
e. armies composed of the aristocracy over those of peasants
7.
Much of what we know of early German society derives from which of the following author?
a. Bede the Venerable
b. Isidore of Seville
c. Clovis
d. Tacitus (p.182)
e. Justinian the Great
8.
Germanic art of the period is best exemplified by
a. monumental statues and palaces
b. tombs
c. jewelry (p.184)
d. illuminated manuscripts depicting geometric forms
e. mosaics and murals
9.
Why did Constantine move the capital of the Empire from Rome to New Rome (Constantinople)?
a. the Visigothic invasion of Italy
b. the Patriarch of Constantinople had much higher prestige than the Bishop of Rome
c. the relative ease of raising money and troops there (p.186)
d. because of attacks by Attila the Hun
e. his conversion to Arian Christianity
10.
The Franks eventually became rulers of:
a. Frisia.
b. Byzantium.
c. Italy.
d. Iberia.
e. northern Gaul (p.181)
40
11.
What is the most enduring accomplishment of the reign of Justinian the Great?
a. the separation of the Latin Christian Church from the Greek Orthodox Church
b. the unification of Gaul
c. the restoration of the Roman Empire
d. the systematic codification of Roman law (p.188)
e. the emergence of the papacy
12.
Which of the following Germanic tribes became known as "the eldest daughter" of the Western Church?
a. Visigoths
b. Ostrogoths
c. Franks (p.191)
d. Burgundians
e. Vandals
13.
How did the increasing use of the horse affect Germanic society?
a. because of mobility, settlement patterns became more rural
b. unable to afford a horse, many aristocrats became peasants
c. little if any social change accompanied the increased use of the horse
d. because of the expense, wealthy freemen became a new military aristocracy (p. 192)
e. peasants became wealthier because they grew more expensive oats to feed horses
14.
The "do nothing kings" refers to
a. the Carolingian dynasty of Gaul
b. the British kings in England who were conquered by the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes
c. reccared and the Visigoths in Spain
d. the Merovingian successors of Clovis (p.191)
e. the late-Roman emperors
15.
Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) refers to
a. classical and early Christian learning preserved in monasteries
b. the writings of early Christian scholars, particularly Isidore of Seville, Bede the Venerable, and Pope
Gregory the Great
c. a large church in Constantinople (p.189)
d. the Greek translation of Scripture
e. the Rule of St. Benedict
16.
Which one of the following is NOT a reason for the emergence of the single-family peasant farm as the
basic unit of agricultural production in the Early Middle Ages?
a. the mounted soldier made warfare expensive, so many warriors became full-time farmers
b. decline of birthrate made it necessary for entire families to work in agricultural production (p.194)
c. horses made it easier although more expensive for farmers to support themselves
d. more economically feasible for landowners to rent their land to farmers
17.
Which one of the following is NOT an technological achievement of the Early Middle Ages?
a. three-field system
b. horse collar
c. heavy plow
d. light-plow (p.194)
e. horse shoe
41
18.
The Council of Whitby in 663 determined that
a. all Christians in Gaul must practice Arian rather than Roman Christianity
b. the Visigoths give up all territory in Gaul after their defeat by Clovis
c. all monasteries follow the Rule of St. Benedict
d. Arianism was an heretical belief
e. Roman rather than Irish Christianity would be practiced in England (pp.202-203)
19.
The Doctrine of Petrine Succession requires that
a. all Byzantine Emperors submit to the Patriarch of Constantinople in religious matters
b. the Latin Roman Church and the Greek Orthodox Church remain separate
c. German kings practice partible inheritance
d. the Apostle Peter endowed by Jesus Christ with supreme responsibility of the Roman Church and that
the pope was the successor to Peter (p.197)
e. the Bishop of Rome be only “one bishop among all bishops”
20.
The Rule of St. Benedict is
a. a manual of converting pagans to Christianity
b. Roman-Papal law
c. the codification of Roman law in Lombardy (Italy)
d. a description of the ascetic practices of hermits
e. a guide to monastic life (p.199)
21.
Gregory I (r. 590-604) provides an excellent example of
a. Germanic kingship
b. the difficulties encountered by the Frankish custom of partible inheritance
c. a successful missionary among pagans
d. the growth of papal primacy in the west (p.198)
e. the decline of the Roman Empire in the West
22.
Monasteries in the Early Middle Ages
a.
served as centers of learning
b.
played a major role in local politics and government
c.
set an example of innovative agricultural practices
d.
all of the above (p.200)
ESSAY QUESTIONS
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Compare the roles of women in Germanic and Roman society.
Why would an ascetic lifestyle be attractive during the Early Middle Ages?
Why would a Germanic king, for example Clovis, desire the support of the Church in the consolidation of
his kingdom?
Explain the difficulty Christian writers had with classical writers and education as they developed Christian
theology and attempted to improve literacy?
How did the Early Middle Ages, and by implication the entire medieval period as well as western
civilization, represent a fusion of Christian, Roman, and Germanic cultures? What did each contribute to
this new civilization?
What roles did the Church play in the restructuring of the Germanic kingdoms?
Was Justinian an innovative and effective or overly ambitious and disastrous ruler?
Discuss how the lives of peasants were transformed during the Early Middle Ages.
Explain the origins of the papacy. How did it ascend to primacy?
42
32.
What contributions to medieval society did the religious orders make during this period? How did monks
and nuns contribute to the spread of Christianity?
CRITICAL THINKING
Evaluating Evidence
33.
Using Map 6.1, explain how the invasions of the Germanic tribes were prompted by other invaders.
34.
How does the mosaic of Justinian on page 187 illustrate the connection between the secular and the
religious in the Byzantine empire?
35.
Consider the depiction of the baptism of Clovis on page 191. Why did German kings court the support of
the Roman Church? What did the Church have to offer a Germanic king in return?
36.
What kinds of activities are Gregory and the others pictured in the relief on page 198 engaged in? Compare
their activities to those of the monks on page 201.
37.
How do the details and figures found in the Chi-Rho letters of The Book of Kells on page 204 reflect the
fusion of Christian themes with the nature and animal motifs of Hibernian-Anglo-Saxon art?
Critical Analysis
Tacitus on the Early Germans
38.
Tacitus never observed Germanic society directly, but instead gathered his information from discussions
with German soldiers and travelers. How might his methodology have influenced his understanding of early
Germanic society?
39.
How does the structure of Germanic society explain the wergeld? Why do you think the Germanic tribes
placed so much importance on public ritual in the exercise of law and in the punishment of criminals?
Sidonius Apollinaris on Living with the Germans
40.
Sidonius Apollinaris was a Roman patrician. How would his status influence his perception of the
barbarians and their culture?
41.
In this letter, what is the evidence of Sidonius's classical education and heritage? And how does he appraise
his friend's knowledge of German?
The Rule of St. Benedict on the Clothing of Monks
42.
Why do you think St. Benedict’s text was eventually adopted as the standard monastic rule throughout
western Europe by the end of the Early Middle Ages?
43.
How does St. Benedict include the vows of poverty and obedience in his advice? How does he define
poverty? How does it contribute to the ascetic life?
43
IDENTIFICATIONS
44. Visigoths
60. Clovis
45. Wergeld
61. Attila the Hun
46. comitatus
62. Constantinople
47. Tacitus
63. Hagia Sophia
48. Charles Martel
64. Ulfila
49. three-field system
65. Merovingians
50. Pepin the Short
66. Cassiodorus
51. Boethius
67. Sidonius Apollinaris
52. Henry Pirenne
68. compurgation
53. Theodoric
69. Doctrine of Petrine Succession
54. Council of Whitby
70. Theodora
55. Benedictine missionaries
71. Corpus Iuris Civilis
56. Justinian the Great
72. monasticism
57. St. Benedict
73. Ravenna
58. Gregory the Great
74. Kingdom of the Sassanids
59. scriptoria
75. Bede the Venerable
44