Download ap eh chapter 24: an age of modernity and anxiety, 1894-1914

AP EH CHAPTER 24: AN AGE OF MODERNITY AND ANXIETY, 1894-1914
I.
TOWARD THE MODERN CONSCIOUSNESS: INTELLECTUAL AND
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS
A. before 1914, most Europeans continued to believe in the values and
ideals that had been generated by the Scientific Revolution and the
Enlightenment
B. beginning in the late 19th Century, a new view of the physical
universe, an appeal to the irrational, alternative views of human
nature, and radically innovative forms of literary and artistic
expression shattered old beliefs and opened the way to a modern
consciousness (a sense of confusion and anxiety prevalent)
C. Developments in the Sciences: the Emergence of a New Physics
1. science was one of the chief pillars underlying the
optimistic and rationalistic view of the world that many
Westerners shared in the 19th Century
2. throughout the 19th Century, Westerners adhered to the
mechanical conception of the universe postulated by the
classical physics of Isaac Newton
3. these views were seriously challenged at the end of the 19th
Century
4. Inquiry into the disintegrative processes within atoms
became a central theme in the new physics in part due to
the experimental work of Marie and Pierre Curie on radium
and radiation
5. the quantum theory of energy developed by Max Planck
raised fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of
the atom as the basic building blocks of the material world
6. Einstein was responsible for the Special Theory of
Relativity
D. Toward a New Understanding of the Irrational
1. intellectually, the decades before 1914 witnessed a
combination of contradictory developments
a. human reason and progress still remained a dominant
thread
b. a small group of intellectuals attacked the optimistic
progress, dethroned reason, and glorified the irrational
2. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900)
a. intellectual who glorified the irrational
b. believed that Christianity was a scourge and had
deeply undermined the creative power of western
civilization
3. Henri Bergson (1859-1941)
a. accepted rational, scientific thought as a practical
instrument
b. reality was the “life force” that suffused all things
4. Georges Sorel (1847-1922)
a. a French political theorist
b. believed that a small elite ruling body had to govern
the masses (advocated violence if necessary to
achieve socialism)
1
E. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)and the Emergence of Psychoanalysis
1. Austrian (Vienna)doctor who put forth a series of theories
that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the
human mind
2. argued that human behavior was determined by one’s
unconsciousness and by inner drives which people were
generally unaware
3. Maintained that human being’s inner life was a battleground
between the id (contained lustful drives and desires), ego
(seat of reason), and superego (represented inhibitions and
moral values)
4. often linked with Marx and Darwin as the intellectual giants
of the 19th Century
F. The Impact of Darwin: Social Darwinism and Racism
1. in the 2nd half of the 19th Century, scientific theories were
sometimes wrongly applied to achieve other ends
2. the application of Darwin’s principle of organic evolution to
society came to be known as Social Darwinism
3. the most popular exponent of Social Darwinism was the
British philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) who
argued that all human societies were organisms evolving
through time from a struggle with their environment
4. according to Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927), an
Englishman who became a German citizen, Aryans were the
real creators of western culture
5. he urged that the Aryan race, under German leadership,
must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save
it from the destructive assaults of lower races such as
Jews, Negroes, and Orientals (Jews in particular)
G. The Attack on Christianity and the Response of the Churches
1. the growth of scientific thinking as well the forces of
modernization presented new challenges to the Christian
churches (EX: church had weak hold on factory workers)
2. political movements of the late 19th Century were hostile to
the established Christian churches (EX: Paris Commune
murdering the archbishop of Paris)
3. science became one of the chief threats to all Christian
churches and even to religion itself in the 19th Century (EX:
Darwin’s theory of evolution)
4. the urbanization of Europe brought religion under attack
through:
a. new migrants to cities without connections to civic
churches
b. advocates of more scientific inquiry (EX: higher
criticism of the Bible championed by the French
Catholic scholar Ernst Renan [1823-1892]seriously
questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible and
denied the divinity of Jesus)
c. Marxist political environment of the 19th Century
2
5. the Catholic Church took a rigid stand against modern
ideas including religious toleration, freedom of speech, and
freedom of the press under the direction of conservative
popes such as Pius IX (1846-1878)
6. the church began to compromise more with modern society
under Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) who stated in his De Rerum
Novarum (1891) that much in socialism was Christian in
principle
7. other religious groups also made efforts to win support for
Christianity among the working-class poor and restore
religious practice among the urban working classes
H. The Culture of Modernity
1. Naturalism and Symbolism in Literature
a. throughout much of the late 19th Century, literature
was dominated by Naturalism
b. Naturalists accepted the material world as real and felt
literature should be realistic
c. although Naturalism is a continuation of realism, it
lacked the underlying note of liberal optimism about
people and society that had still been prevalent in the
1850s
d. the Naturalists were pessimistic about Europe’s future
and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of
forces beyond their control (greatest difference from
realism)
e. the best example of naturalistic literature can be found
in the novels of Emile Zola (Rougon-Macquart)
f. explaining his use of naturalism in his novels and his
depiction of characters, Emile Zola said: “I have
simply done on living bodies the work of analysis
which surgeons perform on corpses.”
g. Russia entered its golden age of literature powered by
the realistic novels of two men:
1. Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910)
a. known for his character portrayal and vivid
descriptions of military life
b. War and Peace is his masterpiece
2. Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881)
a. known for his narrative skills and profound
insights into human nature
b. most famous works Crime and Punishment
and The Brothers Karamazov
3. Symbolism
a. primarily used poetry
b. believed that objective knowledge of the world was
impossible
c. WB Yeats and Rainer Maria Rilke are the best
examples
d. Late 1800s early 1900s
3
II.
2. Modernism in the Arts
a. in art, modernism found its beginnings in the work of
Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) movement called
impressionism
b. sought to put into painting their impressions of the
changing effects of light on objects in nature
c. Claude Monet (1840-1926) was especially enchanted with
water and painted many pictures in which he sought to
capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere
(evident in Impression, Sunrise)
d. Berthe Morisot (1841-1895) was a female impressionist
who had to fight every step of the way to be regarded as
a serious artist; known for her lighter colors and flowing
brush strokes (Young Girl by the Window [1878])
e. by the 1880s, a new movement known as PostImpressionism arose in France but soon spread to other
European Countries
f. Post-Impressionism retained the Impressionist emphasis
upon light and color but revolutionized it even further by
paying more attention to structure and form
g. Paul Cezzane (1839-1906) [Woman with Coffee Pot] and
Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) [Starry Night]
4. Modernism in Music
a. modernism in music included the elements of:
1. attraction to the exotic and the primitive
2. nationalist themes
3. folk music
b. Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) was a Scandinavian
composer who dedicated his music to Norwegian
nationalism; used Norwegian folk music extensively
(Peer Gynt Suite—best-known work composed in
1876)
c. Claude Debussy (1862-1918) was closely linked to the
Impressionist movement as his music was often
inspired by art and poetry (Prelude to the Afternoon of
a Faun [1894])
d. Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) was a chief exponent of
musical primitivism (The Firebird --1910;Petrushka –
1911); composed many of his works for Sergei
Diaghilev who headed the world famous Ballet Russe
e. at its premier, Igor Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring (1913),
now considered as a classic example of modernism in
music and ballet caused a great riot at the theatre by
audience members fighting over the music’s heavy
beat, sharp dissonance, and blatant sensuality
POLITICS: NEW DIRECTIONS AND NEW UNCERTAINTIES
A. The Movement for Women’s Rights
1. in the 1st half of the 19th Century a number of women in the
United States and Europe began to work together for
women’s rights
4
2. family and marriage laws were especially singled out since
it was difficult for women to secure divorces and property
laws gave men almost complete control over the property of
their wives
3. progress was slow as women in Britain did not gain rights
over their own property until 1870 (Germany in 1900; France
in 1907)
4. divorce was not legalized in Britain until 1857 (France in
1884 and just partially; Spain and Italy not at all)
5. some upper and middle-class women gained access to
higher education during the 19th Century
6. teaching was the first professional occupation opened to
women
7. thanks to the pioneering efforts in the field of nursing by
women such as German Amalie Sieveking (1794-1859),
Englishwoman Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), and
American Clara Barton (1821-1912), nursing became
another professional career open to women
8. by the 1840s and 1850s, the movement for women’s rights
entered the political arena with the call for equal political
rights
9. the women’s suffrage movement was strongest in Great
Britain and the United States where Enlightenment ideas
such as “natural rights” were often nurtured
10. the British women’s suffrage movement was divided into
camps led by two women
a. Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929)
1. led the moderate faction
2. her group believed it was important for women
to demonstrate that they would use political
power responsibly if they wanted Parliament to
grant them the right to vote
b. Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928)
1. led the radical faction
2. along with her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia,
founded the mostly middle and upper-class
Women’s Social and Political Union in 1903
3. to advance the cause of women’s suffrage, this
group took a radical, public, well publicized
approach to the movement, employing different
media and provocative public actions to
demand the vote for women like pelting male
politicians with eggs, chaining themselves to
lampposts, smashing windows of fashionable
department stores, burning railroad cars, going
on hunger strikes when imprisoned
11. nevertheless, only in Finland, Norway, and some American
states did women actually receive the right to vote before
1914
5
12. women such as Bertha Suttner (1843-1914), who led the
Austrian Peace Society, led the movement for disarmament
and peace
13. Italian Maria Montessori (1870-1952), medical doctor turned
educator, established a system of childhood education
based on natural and spontaneous activities in which
students learned at their own pace (her schools were
popular both in Europe and the US by the 1930s)
B. Jews within the European Nation-State
1. during the 19th Century, Jews were emancipated in most
countries, but still restricted
a. in France, they had full citizenship granted to them in
1791 but due to a 1808 decree restrictions were placed
on their movement and ability to lend money
commercially
b. in Prussia, Jews were emancipated in 1812 but not
allowed to hold government offices or take advanced
degrees in universities
c. in Vienna, Austria, Jews made up ten percent of the
population but 39% of all medical students and 23% of
all law students
d. in Great Britain, Jewish politician Benjamin Disraeli
rose to the position of Prime Minister in the 1860s
2. despite advances as a group during the 1800s, antiSemitism was still alive and well in Europe
a. France—Dreyfus Affair
b. Austria---the most powerful party in Vienna was the
Christian Socialists who combined agitation on the
behalf of workers with a virulent anti-Semitism
c. Germany---had right-wing anti-Semitic parties such as
Adolf Stocker’s Christian Social Workers’ Party
d. The worst treatment of Jews in the last two decades of
the 19th Century and the first decade of the 20th
Century occurred in Eastern Europe where 72% of the
entire world Jewish population lived (widespread
persecution and pogroms led to a mass Jewish
exodus from Eastern Europe to the United States,
Canada, and, to a much lesser degree, Palestine)
3. Theodor Herzl (1860-1904)
a. Jewish leader who was a key figure in the growth of
political Zionism
b. In 1896, he published The Jewish State in which he
advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine
as a means of sparing European Jews the indignities
of growing anti-Semitism
C. The Transformation of Liberalism: Great Britain and Italy
1. in Great Britain, neither Liberals or Conservatives were
moved to accommodate the working-class with significant
reforms until they were forced to do so by the pressure
applied by the newly created Labour Party and fledgling
trade unions (both non-Marxist)
6
2. the Labour Party had been created by Fabian Socialists who
advocated the necessity of workers using their new voting
rights to progressively elect a new House of Commons
wherein legislation favorable to the working-classes could
be passed in a democratic fashion
3. the Liberals, who gained control of the House of Commons
in 1906 and held it until 1914, perceived that they would
have to enact a program of social welfare or lose the
support of workers
4. under the leadership of Prime Minister David Lloyd George
(1863-1945), the Liberal Party abandoned the classical
principles of laissez-faire and voted for a series of social
reforms such as the National Insurance Act of 1911
5. the National Insurance Act of 1911 provided sickness and
unemployment benefits to workers with state aid (paid for
by increasing the tax burden on wealthy classes)-----------2
6. In Italy, Liberal leader and sometime Prime Minister
Giovanni Giolitti used a policy of ruler ship called
transformismo which was the policy of transforming old
political parties into new power blocks through the
calculated use of political patronage and outright bribery
7. despite Giolitti passing welfare legislation, worker unrest
exploded into anti-government riots in 1914 (troops had to
be used to crush them)
D. Growing Tensions in Germany
1. the new imperial Germany begun by Bismarck in 1871
continued as an “authoritarian, conservative, militarybureaucratic power state” during the reign of Kaiser
Wilhelm II (1888-1918)
2. by 1914, Germany had become the strongest military and
industrial power on the Continent
3. the growth of industrialization led to even greater
expansion for the Social Democratic Party (frightened the
middle and upper classes who blamed labor for their own
problems)
4. with the expansion of industry and cities came demands for
more political participation and growing sentiment for
reforms that would produce greater democratization
5. growing tensions in modern German society were
exemplified by the proliferation of ultra-nationalist rightwing political pressure groups with anti-Semitic, racist, and
imperialist beliefs (EX: Pan-German League)
6. the Pan-German League advocated anti-socialist and antiliberal policies including the development of a global
German colonial empire to unite all different classes of
citizens at home
E. Industrialization and Revolution in Imperial Russia
1. Sergei Witte (1849-1915)
a. the minister for finance in Russia from 1892 to 1903
7
b. starting in the 1890s, Russia experienced a massive
surge of state-sponsored industrialism under his
guidance
c. Witte believed that railroads were a very powerful
weapon in economic development (35,000 miles of
railroad were built on his watch)
d. encouraged protective tariffs to help Russian industry
e. persuaded Czar Nicholas II that foreign capital was
essential for rapid industrialism (his programs help
make Russia the world’s 4th largest steel producer by
1900)
2. as industrialism grew in Russia, so did urban squalor and
unrest
3. this unrest coupled with Russia’s disastrous defeat in the
Russo-Japanese War indirectly led to the internal
Revolution of 1905
4. Russo-Japanese War had caused food shortages; a
massive procession of workers marched on the Czar’s
Winter Palace to peacefully present him with a petition
(troops panicked and opened fire on the crowd (Bloody
Sunday) setting off the revolution
5. under Witte’s advice, the czar issued the October Manifesto
which granted civil liberties and agreed to create a Duma
(legislative assembly) elected directly by the people
6. the manifesto won the support of middle-class moderates
who now supported the czar’s efforts to suppress the
worker uprising
7. after the czar’s reform minded chief minister, Peter
Stolypin, was assassinated in 1911, Nicholas II reverted
back to his reactionary roots and curtailed the power of the
Duma and ruled with his bureaucracy and military
F. The Rise of the United States
1. between 1860 and 1914, the United States made the shift
from an agrarian to a mighty industrial nation
2. American heavy industry was unrivaled by 1900
3. people still questioned the overall quality of life in the US
since the richest 9% of the population controlled 71% of the
wealth
4. terrible working conditions in factories led to the
emergence of organized labor (EX: American Federation of
Labor)
5. after 1900, Progressive reformers, particularly on the state
level, enacted economic and social legislation which did
improve the quality of life for the average American
G. The Growth of Canada
1. Canada faced problems of national unity at the end of the
19th Century
2. real unity was difficult to achieve because of distrust
between the English-speaking and French-speaking
peoples of Canada
8
III.
3. Wilfred Laurier, the 1st French-Canadian Prime Minister of
Canada in 1896, helped bring the country together.
THE NEW IMPERIALISM
A. Causes of the New Imperialism
1. the existence of competitive nation-states after 1870 was
undoubtedly a major determinant in the growth of this new
imperialism
2. late 19th Century imperialism was closely tied to
nationalism (nationalists equated national power to military
power and its use for material gain)
3. imperialism was also tied to Social Darwinism and racism
(Social Darwinists believed “superior” races must dominate
“inferior” races to show how strong and virile they are)
4. a more religious-humanitarian, yet still very racist,
approach to imperialism was taken by some Europeans
when they argued that Europeans had a moral
responsibility to civilize ignorant peoples (White Man’s
Burden)
5. the need for natural resources and new military bases were
other reasons emphasized by some historians for
imperialism
B. The Creation of Empires
1. The Scramble for Africa
a. Europeans controlled relatively little of the African
continent before 1880 (South Africa was the exception)
b. The British
1. Britain had established themselves in South Africa
during the Napoleonic wars
2. the original colonizers of South Africa were the
Dutch, called Boers.
3. British policies disgusted the Boers and led them in
1835 to migrate north on the Great Trek to the region
between the Orange and Vaal Rivers (later known as
the Orange Free State) and north of the Vaal River
(the Transvaal).
4. after a struggle between the British and the Boers,
the Transvaal region was recognized as the
independent Boer South African Republic (did not
keep either white group from massacring and
subjugating the Zulu and Xhosa peoples of the
region)
5. British scheming against the Boers in the 1890s
precipitated the Boer War from 1899 to 1902 (British
army overwhelmed out manned Boers but British
were conciliatory to Boers afterward)
6. Britain also seized control of Egypt in 1882 (primarily
because of the Suez Canal) and later Sudan in 1898
(Battle of Omdurman)
c. the Portuguese had settlements in Angola and
Mozambique
9
d. the French had control in Algeria by 1879 , Tunisia and
the vast French West Africa by 1900, and had
established a protectorate in Morocco in 1912
e. the Italians seized Ottoman Tripoli in 1911 renaming it
Libya
f. Central Africa was dominated by King Leopold II of
Belgium starting in 1876(condemned even by other
European governments for his brutality in the region)
g. between 1884 and 1900, the Germans established
colonies in Southwest Africa, the Cameroons, Togoland,
and East Africa
h. only Liberia and Ethiopia remained independent states
in Africa by 1914
2. Asia in the Age of Imperialism
a. although Asia had been open to Western influence since
the 16th Century, not much of its immense territory had
fallen under direct European control
b. The British
1. it was not until the explorations of Australia by
Captain James Cook between 1768 and 1771 that
Britain took an active interest in the East
2. Australia and New Zealand were made part of the
British Commonwealth
3. in 1842, Britain acquired Hong Kong through war
(also seized Burma and the Malay States in SE Asia)
4. in 1858, the British government took control of India
from the private British East India Company after the
unsuccessful Sepoy uprising
c. The Russians
1. in the north, gained control over Siberia and Alaska
(Alaska was acquired by US in 1867)
2. in the south, gained control over the entire northern
coast of the Black Sea (1830), the Trans-Caspian
area (1881), and Turkestan (1885)
3. Japanese halted Russian plans for expansion plans
in the Far East as did Britain on the Indian
subcontinent
d. The French
1. they occupied the city of Saigon in 1858
2. Cochin China was taken in 1862
3. Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos were organized
into the Union of French Indochina in the 1880s
e. The United States
1. forced Japan to give them trading and diplomatic
privileges in the 1850s
2. added the Samoan Islands and the Hawaiian Islands
in the late 1800s
3. after defeating the Spanish in 1898, the Americans
added Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines
to its holdings
3. Asian Response to Imperialism
10
a. China
1. Britain, France, Germany, Russia, the United States,
and Japan established spheres of influence and
long-term leases of Chinese territory
2. the humiliation of China by the Western powers led
to much anti-foreign violence, but the Westerners
only used this lawlessness as an excuse to extort
further concessions from the Chinese
3. the Boxer Rebellion of 1900-1901 was an attempt by
Chinese nationalists called “Boxers” to expel all
foreigners through an armed uprising (failed)
4. Manchu Dynasty failed and was replaced by a weak
republic led by revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen
b. Japan
1. Japan, under the astute leadership of Emperor
Mutsuhito (1867-1912), was able to avoid China’s fate
2. his regime’s Meiji Restoration:
a. created a political system that was democratic in
form but rigidly authoritarian in practice
b. sent many Japanese abroad to be educated in the
ways of the west and adopted western reforms in
political, economic, and military organization
3. made Korea a colony in 1905 (ruled harshly)
c. India
1. under Parliament’s supervision, a small group of
British civil servants directed the affairs of India’s
almost 300 million people
2. the British brought order to a society that had been
divided by civil wars for some time and created a
relatively honest and efficient government
3. the Indian people paid a high price for the peace and
stability of British rule
a. due to population growth, extreme poverty was a
way of life for most Indians (67% of the country
was malnourished in1901)
b. British manufactured goods destroyed local
industries
c. the education system served only the Indian elite
(educated Indians still treated like 2nd class
citizens)
d. smug racial attitudes undermined acceptance of
British rule
4. Indian National Congress (1883) sought autonomy
for India
V. INTERNATIONAL RIVALRY AND THE COMING OF WAR
A. The Bismarckian System
1. Bismarck knew that the emergence of a unified Germany in
1871 had upset the balance of power established at Vienna
in 1815
2. Bismarck’s alliance system served to bring the European
powers into an interlocking system in which no one state
11
could be certain of much support if it chose to initiate a war
of aggression
3. Bismarck believed the best way to preserve the new
German state and new status quo was to act as Europe’s
peacemaker
4. The Three Emperors’ League (1873)
a. an alliance Bismarck engineered between Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Russia
b. this alliance of traditionally conservative countries
purpose was to isolate France
c. did not work very well due to conflicts in eastern Europe
between Austria-Hungary and Russia particularly in the
Balkans
d. Bismarck tried to act as an intermediary between its two
allies (ultimately unsuccessful)
5. Ottoman Wars (late 1870s)
a. in 1876, the Balkan states of Serbia and Montenegro
declared war on the Ottoman Empire
b. both were defeated
c. Russia, with Austrian approval, then attacked and
defeated the Ottoman Empire
d. the Treaty of San Stefano (1878) ended the RussoOttoman hostilities calling for the creation of a large
Bulgarian state (Russian satellite)
e. this Bulgarian state concerned the other great powers of
Europe and they called for the treaty’s revision
6. Congress of Berlin (1878)
a. meeting of European nations which effectively
demolished the San Stefano Treaty
b. dominated by Bismarck
c. greatly reduced the size of the new Bulgarian state
(returned much of the former Bulgaria back to the
Ottomans)
d. made the Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, and
Romania independent
e. put the Balkan states of Bosnia and Herzegovina under
Austrian protection
f. humiliated the Russians (Russians terminated the Three
Emperors’ League)
g. congress resulted in the European powers seeking new
alliances to safeguard their security
7. Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Italy formed the Triple
Alliance in 1882
8. Fearing that Russia and France may come together,
Bismarck also made a separate Reinsurance Treaty with the
Russians in 1887 (undone shortly after Wilhelm II’s firing of
Bismarck in 1890)
B. New Directions and New Crises
1. after 1890, a new European diplomacy unfolded in which
Europe was divided into two opposing camps that became
more and more inflexible and unwilling to compromise
12
2. after Bismarck’s dismissal, Kaiser Wilhelm II embarked
upon an activist foreign policy dedicated to enhancing
German power
3. his ending of his agreement with Russia, allowed the
French and Russians to become allied in 1894
4. Great Britain which had an isolationist policy in place
regarding continental matters changed its tune after
receiving criticism because of its Boer War with South
Africa
5. despite Germany seeming to be Britain’s most likely choice
as an ally, Great Britain eventually allied itself with its longtime nemesis France because of its growing concerns over
Germany as an industrial, colonial, and naval rival (Entente
Cordial of 1904 officially made France and Great Britain
allies)
6. Germany’s foolish saber rattling during the First Moroccan
Crisis of 1905-1906 further united France and Great Britain
and eventually led to Russia joining an alliance with both
(Triple Entente)
7. Crises in the Balkans (1908-1913)
a. the Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 led Austria to take the
drastic step of annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina
(prohibited by Congress of Berlin)
b. Serbia which was attempting to create its own Balkan
empire protested (backed by Russia---aka Papa Slav)
c. it appeared Austria and Serbia would go to war but
Germany sided with Austria and warned Russia that any
war against Austria would mean war with Germany
(Russia backs off defusing the crisis for the time being)
d. the First and Second Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913
between various Balkan nations accomplished little
other than leaving the inhabitants feeling embittered and
spiking tensions
e. Serbia’s effort to gain access to the Adriatic via Albania
was denied by Austria at the London Conference which
created a newly independent Albania (angered Serbs
and Russians)
f. The two rival camps (the Triple Entente and Triple
Alliance) viewed each other with distrust in 1914
g. only some kind of “accident” was needed to set off
continent-wide hostilities
13