Download Ian Coleman - icolemanMA

EDUC 570
Dr. Virginia Lea
Critical Analysis of
Education in the United States
by Sandra Facendini, Jeana Downey, Minerva Flores, and Ian Coleman
The American educational system has taken many turns in the last 2oo plus years.
Despite the attention that has been given to educational reform within the last few years,
educators fear that certain types of “reform” could lead us in the wrong direction, and in
fact, take us down a winding road that the American educational system has traversed
again and again. Influential forces such as religion, social conditions, immigration
patterns, and big business have played an important role in shaping the structure of the
United States’ educational system. These influences can be traced back to the beginning
of the educational system in the U.S. and up to the present day.
The beginnings of education in America are rooted in the Protestant church in the
New England region in the colonial period. Specifically, the religious group known as the
puritans believed it was important for members of their community to gain knowledge of
the scriptures through reading and writing and intended their schools to shape society in a
puritanical way which could be a model for the rest of the world. These beliefs eventually
led to the enactment of the “old deluder Satan law” in 1647, which required instruction to
be provided in reading and writing in communities of at least 50 households and for
communities of 100 households or more grammar would be required in school as well.
The idea being that they could educate their communities in order for them to gain
knowledge through scripture.
John Locke’s ideas in the late 17th century were very influential in education as
well. His idea of the tabla rasa or blank slate held that children could be shaped into civic
minded, moral, and responsible citizens through a proper moral education. In the early
18th century Horace Mann continued in Locke’s footsteps by rejecting the ideas of
children being born into sin. Instead Mann pushed for creating schools that could shape
good workers, moral characters and political participants. Thomas Jefferson was a
proponent of the idea of meritocracy in which all white male children, rich and poor
would be given an equal opportunity in education and could advance through the social
1
hierarchy based on their skills and motivation. These were the primary types of
educational settings and the philosophies behind them found in the colonies, prerevolutionary war era.
After the revolutionary war and into the mid 18th century there was a shift in the
role of education in America. Whereas in the pre-revolutionary war period education was
intended to prepare an individual to live with God in their life, the post-revolutionary
period saw education being used as a way to fulfill the needs of the government. This
meant to shape citizens so that they felt a sense of nationalism and patriotism for their
county and prepare them to play their part in the building of a young social democracy.
As the 20th century approached, a new breed of educators and philosophers
began to exert their influence on the structure of the American educational system.
Educators began to ask for more in terms of societal benefit from the system. Although
building on the ideas of Locke and Jefferson, men like John Dewey took a decidedly
different approach when it came to expounding on what they thought an educational
system should bare.
John Dewey was one of the most influential people in education at the turn of the
century. He was considered the “Father of Progressive Education”. He felt that if
schools were anchored in the whole-child, society would be very different. He believed
schools needed to solve the problems of a growing and dynamic society. It should be
experimental, child-centered, and directed toward reform of society. He held that schools
should reflect the life of the larger society. It needed to be more than just the three Rs.
It should include a practical education as well. Students would get experience in shop,
how to cook, and other areas that would help them be productive in life.
In 1900, 50% of the children in the United States were in school. The average
years spent in school was five. In 1910, two million children were working in America.
Education was not a priority. Many families needed money and children were the way to
get it. However, change was in the air. There was a group of people, called “progressive
reformers” who thought children working should be outlawed. They wanted the
enforcement of child labor laws. They felt education should be the focus for children.
In terms of changes in the early part of the century some of the most significant
reforms were that school was now required for all children until adolescence. Secondary
2
school became mandatory and universal (Sewall, 26). It was seen as a way to give
children a better way of life and to develop skills needed in a more industrialized country.
However, with the large number of immigrants, some white Anglo-Saxon
Protestants became worried about the many children attending school. The numbers
meant increased enrollment. There was also an increase in cost, an increase in cultural
diversity, and changes in curriculum. Because of this, schools began to look into tracking.
The smartest students were assumed to be college bound. The rest of the group would do
some sort of vocational training or less demanding programs. The way this was
determined was through an intelligence test. It was used to quantify intellectual ability.
Unfortunately, ethnicity affected how well students did on the test. IQ researchers found
a hierarchy with Whites on the top, African-Americans on the bottom and MexicanAmericans somewhere in between. Some of the most progressive educators felt that this
test justified segregated education. Intelligence then was influenced by class and skin
color. Based on these tests, 2/3 of Mexican-Americans were classified as slow or
retarded (Blanton, p. 47).
Unfortunately, this process was used for many years. Although one of the goals
of progressive education was to provide experiences and basic knowledge regardless of
background, minorities continued to be treated and educated differently. The idea of
building tolerance was noble, but unrealized.
As the United States emerged from World War II as a super power, racial tension
increased on the home front as minorities and the concerned majority stood up against the
institutional racism that was plaguing society. The civil rights movement was an era of
broad sweeping change in all facets of everyday life for many Americans. As in the past,
this change did not come without its battles.
The history of education has proven to parallel that of domestic and current
events. As we have seen in other time periods, the general animosity against cultural
pluralism in education grew to be a method in polarizing groups and creating barriers to
attain education. Although we have seen various anti-immigrant and anti-“other”
representations in United States history, after World War II, there was a need to rebuild
US citizens’ consciousness and awareness in devising a “great society” where all citizens
could receive benefits and aid if needed. The time span of 1950-1970, proved to be a time
3
of radical changes and distribution of “inherent” rights to all United States citizens. This
surge primarily came in the midst of political and social wars which “undermined”
United States hegemony. As a result, the United States government took a vested interest
and control in public education, allowing for large appropriations in educational
programs; addressing the issue of racial and class divisions; as well as producing capable
citizens who would choose established career paths in order to gain credibility for the
United States.
One of the most overt responses to changes in the global environment was the
establishment of the National Defense Education Act in 1958. Although believed to be
an obvious response to the Sputnik launching, the NDEA sought to promote and
stimulate interest in the sciences, mathematics and modern languages. Students were
encouraged to pursue the fields of science and mathematics, in order to advance the
United States “space race” and other “cold war” associations. In addition, this proved to
be monumental; for the United States government absorbed education as one of its many
platforms. There was now a direct correlation with government input and public
education which had not existed in previous years. This fortified government
involvement over education in concerns to: who would be educated; what was to be
taught, and what was to be the outcome of having an education.
As a result, there appeared a drive to educate our youth in government sanctioned
programs and occupations. Prior to Kennedy’s assassination, the end of World War II
prompted the United States to capitalize socially and economically on new found hope.
The idea to service those who are less fortunate was found in Kennedy’s Peace Corps
program, utilizing United States citizens to educate and assist others is need. President
Johnson took it upon himself to further carryout these ideals and applied them in a
domestic format. In 1964, President Johnson signed several legislative acts which were
directed at social welfare reform, equal access to education, and desegregation. These
legislative acts proved to be revolutionary in US society since there was much hesitation
on behalf of conservative parties. Johnson believed that it was “…the purpose of
government…to benefit ordinary people” (Kotz, 2005, p.89). This idea became further
strengthened when Michael Harrington’s book “The Other America”, described the high
rate of poverty existent in the United States (Kotz, 2005, p.90).
4
The Economic Opportunity Act aimed to halt the cycle of poverty, and provide
jobs and resources to children and youth (Kotz, 2005, p.182). Johnson considered the
purpose of these programs to be a “hand up, not a handout” (Kotz, 2005, p.182), by
which jobs, volunteer appointments, and student aid became available; this act further
fortified the investment and command the United States had over public education. As
the EOA provided job and volunteer opportunities for youth, Johnson, with the aid of
civil rights advocates and the recent assassination of JFK, signed the Civil Rights Act in
1964 which “ended” all segregation in schools; prompted by the Brown vs. Board of
Education in 1954 which ruled that “separate educational facilities are inherently
unequal”(Spring, 2006, p.68 ). However, although this aimed to remedy the situation of
impoverished communities of color by allowing them access to certain funding, this did
not have positive long term effects of the students it was to impact.
In 1965, President Johnson signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
with the expectation that by providing citizens with a quality U.S. Education, this would
enable them to escape poverty and contribute to the “economic future of the country”
(Boone, 1992, p. 3). Although this in combination with the Civil Rights Act of 1964
addressed the issue of equal opportunity for education regardless of race, it proved to be
inherently unequal as time progressed. The ESEA was viewed as disproportionately
benefiting the wealthy, since districts which had as little as ten low-income students
could qualify for federal aid’ and once monies were received, they could be spent of
wealthy or poor students (Twight, 1994, p. 4). Acknowledging and addressing the issue
of inequities in the educational school system still avoided the direct issue of culture and
race of students as well as justifying disproportionate amounts of aid to be given to
districts with skewed student representation. The shift to government operated schools,
although provided aid and much needed integration, systematically failed in
comprehensively addressing the issue to who was educated and to what opportunities
would be available.
The issue of race relations was acknowledged but quickly disavowed as
terminology shifted to instead speak of economics; which can at many times be related to
race. An underlying but present notion of institutionalized racism, which had been
5
overwhelmingly overt, camouflaged itself under a guise of semantics and terminology
which aided to its obsolete normalization when speaking of education in the future.
The Economic influence on the U.S. education system can also be examined in
the form of “Goals 2000.” “Goals 2000” was signed in March of 1994, in hopes to ensure
that all students reach their highest potential. This enables the transition from childhood
(schooling) to adulthood (work), a more positive and productive one.
In order to guarantee that this occurs, the pressure and encouragement for parental
involvement in education grow tremendously. Also, the encouragement of teachers to
continue their professional growth is made positive.
There are several “Goals” laid out, which, if achieved, would allow this purpose
to be reached. The goals include; a)that all children will be at the same level when they
start school; b) the graduation rate will increase by ninety percent by the year 2000; c) all
children will master the most difficult and competitive subjects such as language arts,
science, mathematics and second languages; d) the United States would become the
highest success in the world at mastering math and science; e) all adults will be literate
which will allow for a more structured and successful environment; f) schools will be free
of all drugs, alcohol and weapons; g) all schools will have access to upcoming and
current technological training and h) parental involvement will be enforced into schools.
As shown earlier in this paper, in the early 1900s there was a strong desire to
implement a wide array of topics into the average curriculum (art, philosophy, home
economics, physical education, shop, etc.) While these have been implemented, in the
year 2002, George W. Bush signed the “NO Child Left Behind” Act which set standards
for all schools to meet.
Under this act, the struggle to meet these standards drove schools to cut out the
wide range of curriculum, and focus schooling on what the children would be tested on.
According to NCLB, the students must reach the annual objective OR decrease the
percent of students that were not proficient by at least ten percent while making progress
on another indicator.
The consequences for not reaching these goals had a very expensive effect on the
school district, and burdened others on the means for transportation. This opened up the
6
awareness that parents had the right to choose what school they wanted to send their
children to, based on the schools academic assessment standing.
If the goals were not met within the first two years, children were allowed
to be bussed to other schools; all transportation would be paid for and provided by the
district. If, by year three, the school had not improved, they must continue the choice of
attendance and transportation to different schools, and must also provide supplemental
services to the children.
If by the fourth year, the school has not improved, they must implement
corrective action that must make a difference by the seventh year, or else the government
would become involved with the school district. Once a school is defined by their
academic achievement, as “a school in need of improvement”, they would have two years
to show improvement in order for that title to be erased.
As teachers and district heads struggle to have their student reach these goals,
class electives have been replaced with more advanced topics such as higher math,
science and Language Arts. Not only do school districts struggle with monetary support
for upgrading textbooks and class materials, but high school students have to pass the
“EXIT” exam in order to graduate. How are the schools supposed to reach these new
standards without the monetary support needed? It seems that both “Goals 2000” and
“NCLB” have a common goal: to produce the most knowledgeable and successful youth
in order to achieve a more intelligent and productive, working society.
The struggles of the United States’ educational system have pushed and pulled the
nations citizens in many different ways. Many families opt to send their children to
expensive private schools in search of a better education. Private schools with a religious
affiliation are also extremely popular and offer students many of the same opportunities
in extracurricular activities, if not more, than they would have at public schools in
addition to better resources for academic subjects. The influence of religion and big
business continue to shape the school structure in the United States. Although great
strides have been taking in creating equality within the educational system for all cultures
and socio-economic statuses, there is still much to be done.
7
References
Blanton, C. (2003). From Intellectual Deficiency to Cultural Deficiency: Mexican
Americans, Testing, and Public School Policy in the American Southwest, 19201940. The Pacific Historical Review, 72(1), 39-62.
Boone, M. (1992) Lyndon Baines Johnson and the Presidential Election Campaign of
1964: A Case Study of Presidential Leadership for Education. Office of
Educational Research and Improvement. 1-26
Caro, R. (1990). Means of Ascent. New York: Random House
Carpenter, J. (2004). Jefferson's Views on Education: Implications for Today's Social
Studies. Social Studies, 95(4), . Retrieved Monday, March 19, 2007 from the
ERIC database
Goodenow, R. (1975). The Progressive Educator, Race, and Ethnicity in the Depression
Years. History of Education Quarterly, 15(4), 365-394.
Kotz, N. (2005). Judgment days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King, Jr., and
the laws that changed America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company
Sewall, G. T. (1983). Necessary Lessons: Decline and Renewal in American Schools.
New York:Macmillian
Spring, J. (2006). American Education. New York: McGraw-Hill
Twight, C. (1994). Origins of Federal Control Over Education. March 19,
2007,http://www.libertyhaven.com/politicsandcurrentevents/educationhomeschoo
lingorchildren/originsfederal.shtml
8