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IMPERIALISM - What is it? When did the term come into use?
It came into use after 1850. It was a new kind of European expansion which was not marked by widespread settlement.
Its objective was to control territories for political and economic reasons and for national prestige. The late 19th
century is often called the Age of Imperialism.
WHAT CAUSED IT?
Imperialism arose out of a complex mixture of political, economic, and social forces, although historians do not
agree on which influences were most dominant.
Reasons for imperialism
Desire for Self-sufficiency
Industrial revolution had increased demand for raw materials – iron, coal, manganese, tungsten (steel alloys),
copper (electricity), rubber (variety of uses). Rising standard of living in Europe and U.S. increased demand for coffee,
tea, spices.
Leaders of countries did not want to become dependent on other nations for raw materials. Fear of being
without if a war broke out drove the leaders of these countries to gain control of sources of raw materials - thus making
the country self-sufficient.
Need for New Markets
New and more efficient machinery was also more expensive to buy and operate. Machines had to be operated
at full capacity to make a profit. Even though the people of Europe and the United States were enjoying a rising
standard of living, they could not possibly buy all the goods being manufactured. Therefore, industrialists needed new
markets for their goods. They began to look to Asia, Africa, and Latin America as markets for their excess production.
They believed if they could just get access to these people they could remold their tastes and thus create even more
demand.
Industrialists also argued that their government should control these new markets was just as important as
control of raw materials. Therefore, they pressured their governments to enact tariffs on foreign goods or to bar them
entirely. They also wanted protective tariffs to assure their markets at home.
NATIONALISM
Nationalism or love of one's country a powerful force throughout the 1800’s became particularly powerful
between 1870 and 1914. Many nationalists argued that having colonies added to their nation's strength and prestige.
No longer was it the old powers, Britain, France, Netherlands who sought and control colonies. Now, the newly formed
nations of Germany and Italy, along with Spain, Portugal, and Russia got into the race.
Colonies were seen as a source of manpower for the armies of these countries. The colonies also provided a
base for the navies and merchants marines of these countries to refuel. Navies also increased in size as they were
needed to protect and patrol these far away possessions.
Outlets for Population
Nationalist also argued that colonies would provide a home for the growing population of their countries. Rapid
population growth had accompanied the Industrial Revolution which had created many jobs. However, many people
could not find work and they left to settle in the U.S., Latin American, and Australia where they became naturalized
citizens of their new countries. The nationalists believed that it was important to keep the loyalty of all its citizens. They
contended that if they had colonies to which this excess population could relocate, they could keep their loyalty to the
mother country.
Missionary Motives
As they had in the 1500's and 1600's missionaries continued their efforts to bring Christianity to non-Christians
in distant lands. During the period of imperialism, Protestant missionaries entered into these efforts. During this
period, medical missionaries brought their knowledge of medicine, hygiene, and sanitation with Christianity. Education
also became a regular missionary activity.
"The White Man's Burden"
The idea it was the responsibility of the white man to bring Western ideas and technology to the more backward
people. People were considered "backward" if their religion or their culture differed from those of the West.
Rudyard Kipling, a British author, wrote a poem that urged member of his race to "take up the white man's
burden.
Take up the white man's burden -Send forth the best ye breed -Go bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need;
To wait in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild -Your new-caught, sullen peoples,
Half-devil and half-child.
Kipling was referring to the obligation to carry Western civilization to those he considered less fortunate. The
French people spoke of the "civilizing mission." The people of each industrial nation considered its civilization and
culture to be the highest and therefore, the one most suited for enlightening the "backward" peoples of the earth.
Opponents of imperialism, and they were few, argued that the only burden the white man wanted to take up
was the burden of colonial wealth, which he wanted to carry back as fast as possible.
NATURE OF IMPERIALISM
Imperialism created bitter rivalries among the imperial powers and hatred among the colonized peoples.
Rivalries led to the building of larger armies and navies and eventually to world conflict.
At the start, European governments did not actively plan imperialism. Usually, it began with the work of
individuals, such as merchants, explorers, scientists, or missionaries. Sometimes these individuals met with violence and
then Europeans soldiers would be sent in to quell the violence. Government officials would follow to protect the
interests of their citizens. Engineers, builders who would build roads, railroads, bridges, and dams would follow. Then
the region would be developed for the developers. The local population would be squeezed out of the equation.
Loans to local rulers often started the process. If the local ruler couldn't repay the loan or the interest on the
loan, the ruler would often have to grant economic privileges to the Europeans. Through economic pressure, the
Europeans would gain political control over the area.
TERMS OF IMPERIALISM
Colony: an area in which a foreign nation gained total control over a given region and its local population. A colony was
first gained by settlement or conquest and then annexed, becoming a part of the empire.
Protectorate: the local ruler kept his title, but officials of the foreign power actually controlled the region. The
"protecting" power kept out other foreign nations.
Condominium: an area controlled by two nations as partners.
Concession: the grant of economic rights and privileges in a given areas. Concessions were given to foreign merchants
or capitalists who wanted to trade, to build railroads, or to develop mineral deposits and other natural resources.
Sphere of influence: a region in which one nation had special, sometimes exclusive, economic and political privileges
that were recognized by other nations.
Imperialism in Africa
Prior to the colonization of Africa in the late 1880’s, both the Muslims and the Portuguese has established trade
routes and ports in Africa. During the 1880’s colonization in Africa grew rapidly.
Interest had been sparked in the 1860’s as a result of the work of David Livingstone, a minister from Scotland.
He had traveled with a group of Africans into central Africa. When years went by and no one heard from Livingston,
many feared he had died. A report, Henry Stanley was hired to try and find him. When he did so, it made headlines
around the globe. In 1879, he returned as the request of Leopold II of Belgium. Stanley secured treaties that gave
Leopold II control of these lands. Leopold II proceeded to exploit the natives of the region who he forced to harvest the
sap of the rubber trees. His treatment of the natives alarmed humanitarians who criticized Leopold for his treatment of
the natives who he claimed to be helping by ending slavery. In also alarmed the French who had wished to seize control
of the region. In 1908 Belgium government took over the colony and it became known as the Belgium Congo.
With the discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold (1886) European interest in Africa rapidly increased. In 18841885, the countries of Europe met at the Berlin Conference to decide on a method of claiming African land. They agreed
that any European country could claim land in Africa by notifying other nations of their claims and showing they could
control the area. The Europeans gave little thought to how native groups might be affected by this division. By 1914,
the only two African nations free of European control were Liberia and Ethiopia.
South Africa and the Boer War
The area of South Africa was originally under the control of the Portuguese who then lost control to the Dutch.
The Dutch who settled the region were known as the Boers (Dutch for farmers). The natives of this region were the
Zulus. Their great chief, Zhaka, had created a highly centralized state; however, the Zulus would be no match for the
British who would seize control of the land in 1887.
When the British acquired Capetown as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, this brought them into conflict with the
Boers. During the 1820’s, British settlers moved into Cape Colony where friction soon developed between them and the
Boers. In the Great Trek of 1835-37, the Boers moved northward into the interior, where they established two
independent republics, the Orange Free State and the Transvaal.
In South Africa Cecil Rhodes was the central figure in British imperialist activity. He had made a fortune in
diamonds, which had been discovered in the Cape Colony in 1869. His great dream was the creation of a belt of British
African possessions reaching from the Cape of Good Hope in the South to Egypt in the north. In 1886, gold was
discovered in the Boer republic of Transvaal. As prospectors moved in, tension mounted between the Boers and the
British. In 1895, Dr. Leander S. Jameson led an unsuccessful raid into the Transvaal. The Jameson Raid convinced
President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal that Rhodes, who now prime minister of Cape Colony, was plotting to take over
the Transvaal and its sister Boer republic, the Orange Free State. Emperor Wilhelm II of Germany sent a telegram to
Kruger, congratulating him on his success in turning back the Jameson Raid. The British greatly resented this
interference.
The Boer War broke out in 899. Although the Transvaal and the Orange Free State put up a determined
resistance, the war ended with a British victory in 1902. In 1910, the British united Cape Colony, Natal, the Transvaal,
and the Orange Free State to form the Union of South Africa, a self-governing dominion.
Egypt
In 1875, Prime Minister Disraeli brought 44% of the shares in the Suez Canal Company from Egypt’s ruler. The
purchase pleased British imperialists who regarded the Suez Canal, which had been built by a French company and
opened in 1869, as an essential link between Great Britain and India. Although technically a possession of the Ottoman
Empire, Egypt was in effect an independent state. The Egyptian ruler, Muhammad Ali, had accumulated an enormous
debt, borrowing heavily from European bankers, who demanded repayment. The sale of his Suez Canal shares provided
him with only temporary financial relief, however, and at the end of the decade, the British and French established their
joint control over Egypt’s finances. Egyptian resentment of foreign intervention grew. In response, the British
established a protectorate over Egypt in 1882, eliminating the French from Egyptian affairs.
Imperialism in India
In the 1600's, Dutch, English, and French trading companies all sought to establish trading posts on the Indian
coast. During the 1700's, a series of events led to British domination of India. First the Mogul empire weakened as local
princes rebelled against harsh Mogul rule. Second, Britain drove France out of its Indian outposts.
The conflicts between Britain and France over India grew out of power struggles in Europe. The outbreak of the
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) in Europe sparked fighting between France and Britain in India. For a time after
this war, France was the leading power in India. Yet the British fought back, and the start of the Seven Years' War (17561763) in Europe set the stage for a British victory. In India the war was fought between the armies of the French and
British East India Companies. Led by Robert Clive, a former British East India Company employee, a force of British and
Indians defeated the French East India Company and their Indian supporters. Clive put a pro-British ruler on the throne
of the state of Bengal, making it the base for East India Company expansion. In the Treaty of Paris of 1763, France
accepted British control over India.
Britain used the money gained from this new colony to help pay off its war debt and to fund new industries in
India. The government also began to reduce the powers of the East India Company as it increased its own power. A
governor-general was sent from London to rule India. These governors felt it was their duty to reshape Indian life
according to European standards. "We are all British gentlemen engaged in the magnificent work of governing an
inferior race."
Although Indian life was improved in some ways, the real mission of the governors was to gain wealth and
power for their homeland. To improve the government of India, East India Company officials were replace with welltrained administrators who were less corrupt and more efficient. Improvements were made in education and trade
barriers between Indian states were removed.
On the other hand the East India Company gradually took more and more of India. Some areas were annexed
entirely; others were allowed to handle their own affairs, but they did not have full independence. In addition, Indians
were barred from the highest civil service jobs, the practice of suttee was outlawed, and last, Indian soldiers in Indian
service, called sepoys, could be required to serve overseas. This violated a Hindu custom that taught that Hindus lost
status by crossing water.
When the British introduce a new rifle that required the sepoys to bite off the tops of greased cartridges, a
rumor some spread that the grease was from cows and pigs. This was offensive to both Hindus and Muslims. Soon the
sepoys rebelled. On a Sunday evening in May 1857, three sepoys units near Delhi rose in revolt. Thus began the Sepoy
Rebellion, which soon spread to other areas. The fighting went on for a year, but the British crushed the rebels in 1858.
This rebellion convinced Britain of the need to take full control of Indian. In 1858 Parliament closed the East India
Company and annexed its Indian lands. A viceroy, whose power was limited, replaced the governor-general. The
important decisions about India were now to be made in London. In 1876 Parliament declared Queen Victoria, Empress
of India. In this way all of the Indian states became a part of the British Empire.
While many Indians did benefit from the technology improvements made in India, many others suffered. The
cheaper British goods drove many local weavers out of business. In addition, Britain placed high tariffs on the sale of
Indian goods in Britain; however tea was exempt from this tariff.
As time passed, Indians educated in British style universities were exposed to the writings of the Enlightenment,
which spoke of independence and right of the people to determine their own government. Many of these educated
Indians rejected the caste system because they accepted the Western idea of equality. On the other hand, the British
who sang the praises of equality practice racial discrimination against the Indians. The educated Indians began to ask for
more equal treatment - not independence or home-rule. Two Indian groups formed to work for changes in British
policy:
 Indian National Congress that was primarily composed of English-speaking Hindu professionals.
 All India Muslim League - formed to speak for the rights of Indian Muslims in any talks about India's future.
Imperialism in China
As you know during the Ming dynasty, China had limited trade with the Europeans to the Portuguese at Macao.
China's last dynasty, the Ching, tried to continue China's isolation but Europe's growing power made that task
impossible.
The Chinese had long required other Asian nations to pay tribute to the emperor in return for trading privileges.
The Europeans did not have to pay tribute, but they did have to follow very strict rules. For example:
 Neither foreign women nor firearms could be brought into warehouses.
 Foreign warehouses could employ no maids and no more than eight Chinese male servants.
 Foreigners could neither buy Chinese books nor learn Chinese.
For centuries European traders accepted these rules because they wanted access to Chinese goods, such as silk
porcelain and, especially in the 1800's, tea. For a while British cotton was in demand and the British could trade cotton
for tea. Eventually the Chinese market was saturated with cotton, but the British demand for tea remained high. In a
desire to find a product that the Chinese would not lose interest in, the British introduced opium grown in India to
China. Although the Chinese government forbade importation, the British found willing Chinese officials who in
exchange for money look the other way as the opium was smuggled into China.
Soon millions of Chinese were hooked. In addition, silver, which had once flowed into Chinese treasuries in
exchange for tea and silk, now was leaving China as payment for opium. As a result, the Chinese government cracked
down on the opium trade. The arrest and execution of opium dealers and smugglers did not quell the opium trade as it
continued to grow and flourish. The emperor then decided to send soldiers to Guangzhou (Canton). The soldiers
imprisoned British traders and government officials in their own warehouses and seized the opium.
Insulted the British struck back and in 1839, the First Opium War began. The British with their superior army
and navy gained victory after victory. However, it took the British three years to force the Chinese to ask for peace. In
the Treaty of Nanjing a new pattern for European trade with Asia was established: the unequal treaty system. The
Chinese no longer made the rules for trade. The Western nations now laid out the rules. The treaty gave the British the
right to trade in four additional ports where traders could live. Foreigners accused of crimes would be tried under their
own country's laws, not Chinese laws. Britain also gained the island of Hong Kong and a cash settlement for the
destroyed opium.
Other events also served to weaken China and make it easier for Western nations to gain influence over more
Chinese territory. After a disastrous flood of the Yellow River in the 1800's, many peasants reacted to the hard times by
joining secret anti-government societies. One such society led an uprising against the Manchus. A religious fanatic who
claimed to be “the Heavenly Younger Brother” of Jesus led the rebels. He called the movement "Taiping" from the
Chinese for great peace. The leaders of the Taiping Rebellion called for sweeping reforms. They wanted all land to be
distributed equally among the peasants. Since about ¼ of the rebel soldiers were women, they wanted women to be
allowed to take the civil service exam. In a four-year period they amassed a following of one million with their capital at
Nanjing. The many Chinese who opposed these reforms and the Europeans who wanted to protect their trade treaties
became alarmed. Both groups aided the Manchus in their efforts to defeat the rebels. Thanks to victories scored by the
Manchus and to discord among the rebel leaders the rebellion collapsed in 1864.
The Taiping Rebellion was not the only uprising in the mid-1800's. Other resistance groups flourished near the
Yellow River and in the northwest of China. Taking advantage of the confusion, the French and British made new trade
demands. They also seized on minor events such as a perceive insult to the flag as an excuse to invade China (Second
Opium War). In 1860, the British and French captured the imperial capital at Beijing. As a result of the Second Opium
War, the Chinese government gave in to foreign demands for more trade. This time the Chinese also agreed to let
British missionaries into China. Other Western nations claimed the same privileges. Each of the major European nations
now carved out a part of China as its "sphere of influence."
The forced opening of China to the West caused some Chinese to call for a modernizing of China. However, it
took a war with Japan, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-95 to force the Chinese to make any real efforts at reform. In
1898 the emperor launched an ambitious program of reform to modernize China. Conservatives at court who felt
threatened turned to the Dowager Empress for help. Only 100 days after the emperor launched his reform campaign,
he was arrest and imprisoned for life. The Dowager Empress then returned China to its earlier policy of slow reform.
Once again sensing the China was ripe for more concessions, the Europeans pressed for more territory. At this point,
the United States called on other countries to follow and Open Door Policy – a policy that all countries should have equal
trading rights in China.
In 1899 another secret society, the Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, arose. Better known as the
Boxers, this group was dedicated to driving all foreigners out of China. Late in 1899 Boxers rebelled in many parts of
China. Christian missionaries and Chinese Christians were killed by the thousands. The climax of the Boxer Rebellion
came in 1900 when the rebels took and held the city of Beijing. After 55 days, an army of British, American, Japanese,
Germany, and Russian soldiers rescued them. The foreign nations demanded payment for the damages to their citizens.
A huge cash settlement and more concessions further weakened the Chinese government.
In 1908, the Dowager Empress died. In 1912 the last Ching emperor left the throne.
Imperialism in Japan
As you recall the Tokugawa shogunates had begun a policy of isolation from the West in the 1600's. For more
than two hundred years, contacts with the West were limited to the visit of one Dutch ship per year. By 1850, many
Western nations dominated Asia and they were no longer willing to accept Japan's isolation. In 1853, Matthew Perry, a
commander in the U.S. Navy sailed his ships into Tokyo Bay to deliver a message from President Fillmore. The President
was seeking protection for shipwrecked sailors, the establishment of a refueling station, and a statement of friendship
from Japan. Perry left saying he would return in a year for a reply.
The Japanese realized that they could not win a war with the United States. In 1854, the Japanese signed the
Treaty of Kanagawa, which gave foreign traders only limited rights. Treaties with the British, Dutch, French, and
Russians quickly followed. By the 1860's Japan had made many trade concessions with the West. For the next several
years a debate raged in Japan about how best to keep the Western nations out of Japan. Using this period of
controversy, the daimyos seized the opportunity to overthrow the Tokugawa shogunate and restore the emperor to the
throne. The emperor took the name Meiji for his throne. Although the emperor was the formal ruler, it was the
samurai that had led the rebellion who held the real power. As military men they set out to make Japan the military
equal of the West. Over the next 50 years, these men transformed Japan into a powerful modern state.
In 1868, the emperor issued the Charter Oath. The oath called for an assembly that would debate and decide
important public issues. It also formally ended feudalism and gave commoners the chance to compete for many new
jobs. The last and perhaps key provision of the oath stated: "wisdom and knowledge shall be sought all over the world
in order to promote the welfare of the empire. The Japanese would enjoy great success in their efforts to modernize.
The reasons for this success are:
 Strong national feelings: national loyalty was more important than loyalty to family or to a feudal lord.
 A prosperous and well-educated population: during their period of isolation the Japanese had become
urbanized and had achieved a literacy rate of about 40%
 Acceptance of new ideas: Japanese were not resistant to new ideas. They saw modernization as a means of
ridding themselves of the foreigners.
Over the next several years the Japanese built factories, railroads, and ports. They improved communication by
installing telegraph lines. They modernized and modeled their navy after the British navy. The new Japanese army drew
upon the best ideas of the French and German armies. Education was required for all men, women, and children.
Patriotism and loyalty to the empire were key instruction concepts. The Japanese did all of this without borrowing from
foreign governments. They financed their modernization with a new system of taxation based on the value of land, not
the crops produced on the land.
In 1889 the Japanese were given a constitution by their emperor. This constitution was modeled after the Germany
constitution. The emperor remained the head of the state and highest authority in the country. While the Japanese
people were given individual rights and a parliament, the Diet, all freedoms were qualified by the clause, "except in
cases provided by law." The interests of the state came before those of the citizen. Western nations were so impressed
with Japan's adoption of a constitution that they agreed to end the unequal treaties of the 1850's and 1860's.
Japanese Imperialism
A major handicap in Japan's drive for modernization was its lack of natural resources. Farmland was scarce, and
growing enough food for the rising population was a problem. Japan was forced to import much of its food and raw
materials for its factories. Faced with these shortages, Japanese leaders chose the same solution as the Western
nations: empire-building.
By the 1890's Japan modernized army and navy were the match for any Western nation. The Japanese had been
victorious over the Chinese in the Sino-Japanese War. In fact, the Chinese had failed to win a single victory. The peace
treaty gave Japan the island of Formosa and some small neighboring islands, as well as the Liaodong Peninsula. In
addition, China recognized Korea's independence, leaving Japan to become the dominant foreign power in that country.
Although some Western nations were concerned with Japan's growing influence in Asia, the British saw it as an
opportunity to weaken Russia's attempts to move into Manchuria. In 1902, delegates from Great Britain and Japan
signed a ten-year treaty of alliance. This alliance treated Japan as an equal partner and helped to restore Japanese
pride, which had been tarnished when the Americans first entered Tokyo Bay. Next, the Japanese tried to enter into
negotiations with the Russians about Russian troops in Manchuria. The czar who considered the Japanese inferior
delayed the talks. On February 8, 1904, the Japanese navy, without warning, attacked the Russian fleet at Port Arthur
on the Liaodong Peninsula. This event marked the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War. A year later, Port Arthur fell to
the Japanese. On land, the Japanese troops steadily forced the Russians out of Manchuria. Desperately hoping to hold
Manchuria, the czar sent his Baltic fleet to Japan. However, the British, honoring their alliance with Japan, refused to
allow the Russian ships to pass through the Suez Canal. It took the Russian fleet seven months to reach Japan and when
it did the Japanese fleet wiped it out. The treaty signed in 1905 confirmed Japan's claim to the Liaodong Peninsula, Port
Arthur, and to Russia's mines and industry in Manchuria. Russia also agreed to recognize Japan's interest in Korea and
to allow Japan to take over the southern half of Sakhalin Island. The Russo-Japanese War forced Western nations to
admit that Japan was now an imperialist power. In 1910, Japan annexed Manchuria with no Western opposition.
Japan's emergence as a world power, inspired nationalist movements in other Asian nations controlled by Western
powers.