Download Middle Ages Reading

The Middle Ages
Terry L. Smart and Allan O Knowslar: World History, A Story of Progress. Holt, Rhinehart and Winston; New
York N.Y. 1987
Elisabeth Ellis and Anthony Esler: World History, Connections to Today. Prentice Hall; Needham MA. 1999
The early Middle Ages used to be described as the Dark Ages. The term arose from the idea that this
period was a time of widespread ignorance and lack of progress. Though we now realize that this era was
not as “dark” as we once thought, it is true that there was a general falling off of the cultural level of
European society in comparison to the achievements of the Roman Empire.
For most Europeans, life was more difficult than it had been when the Roman Empire flourished.
Charlemagne’s empire temporarily restored law and order, but political turmoil returned after his death.
Invasions by the Vikings, Muslims, and Magyars spread destruction and added to the political confusion.
During most of the early Middle Ages, Europe suffered from almost constant warfare. Towns and cities
dwindled in size. Since rulers could no longer protect the inhabitants from raids or invasions, people
moved to rural areas. There was little trade or travel because authorities could no longer keep roads and
bridges in good repair and bandits roamed the countryside. Few people were willing to venture far beyond
the settlements in which they lived. To cope with all these problems, medieval society developed
important new institutions.
Part One: The Development of Feudalism
For much of the early and later
Middle Ages, military force was the
only means of maintaining law and
order. No community was safe unless
guarded by soldiers. Peasants could
not even work their fields without
armed protection.
It was difficult for rulers like the
Carolingians to have much power
because their lands were too extensive
to be controlled by their primitive
government institutions. Authority
rested instead with local lords, who
carried on the tradition of the
comitatus. By the ninth century,
soldiers mounted on horseback had
proved superior to foot soldiers. To
manage a sword, shield, and lance
Frankish Knights defend against Viking invaders. Notice how these early
while controlling a horse required
knights have not quite evolved into the fully armored knights of the later
Middle Ages
skills that only developed after long
training. Also, the warrior on
horseback had to be rich enough to acquire weapons and to be free from farm work in order to train. Thus,
there emerged a special class of mounted soldiers called knights. Frankish rulers depended on the services
of a great number of knights to fight their wars and protect their lands.
Since money was scarce in this period, rulers could not pay their knights in currency. Instead, they
gave each knight land as payment. This system of exchanging land in return for military service is called
feuda1sm (FYOOD-ul-iz-um). The man who granted land was known as a lord. The man who received
land was a vassal, and the land a vassal received from his lord was called a fief (FEEF). A fief included
not only land but everything on it, even the peasants who farmed it. As time went on, vassals won the
right to pass their lands on to their descendants.
Feudalism was based on a system of mutual
obligations among the lords, or nobility. The
public avowal of allegiance that a vassal made to
his lord was called homage (HOM-uhj). As a
vassal of a lord,
when called upon, a man was expected to fight at
his lord’s side. He also advised his lord on
occasion and furnished financial aid at specific
times; for example, if the lord were captured in
battle and a ransom were demanded for his safe
return. In return for this loyalty, the lord promised
to protect his vassal in case of attack and to
defend him in court if he were accused of some
offense. Kings were part of the feudal system, but
only as lords among other lords. The title only
gave him social prestige. The real authority rested
in the hands of the lords who owned the largest
areas of land.
As the Middle Ages progressed, feudalism
developed into the accepted political system for
organizing government. This system, based on
personal loyalties, became quite complex by the
later Middle Ages. The same noble might be the
vassal of several different lords. If there were a
conflict among his lords, he might find it almost
impossible to determine where his primary
loyalty lay.
Chivalry
In the late Middle Ages European nobility
followed an unwritten code of behavior called
chivalry
(SHIV-ul-ree), which glorified Christian virtues
and the value of being a warrior. Its origins, however, can be found in the early medieval period. The
term chivalry arose from the French word chevalier, the name for a mounted knight. One aspect of
chivalry was the preparation for knighthood. The training of a knight began at about the age of seven.
First, a boy was placed as a page in the lord’s house. There he served the women of the house and learned
manners. As a teenager, the youth became a squire and served a knight of the household. In addition to
the skills of war and hunting, he learned to play chess, to recite
poetry, and to play the lute, a guitar-like instrument. He cared for his knight’s weapons, equipment, and
horse, and accompanied his master wherever he went, even into battle.
At about the age of twenty-one, a squire had to demonstrate his skill at fighting with the lance and
sword. If he did well, he was admitted to knighthood in a solemn ceremony called dubbing. First, his
sword was blessed by a member of the clergy. This was followed by prayer and the taking of an oath that
defined the knight’s obligations. He was to keep the Christian faith, to speak the truth at all times, and to
protect the weak.
As you know, warfare was constant and fighting was the main occupation of upper-class men during
the early Middle Ages. Armed force was a common way to settle disputes, and war could bring the lords
material rewards. Victors often acquired new lands and gained additional wealth by taking prisoners who
could be held for ransom. Some men fought simply for the joy of battle, and to die in combat was
considered an honorable death.
At first, mounted soldiers were protected only by light armor called chain mail. It consisted of
overlapping metal rings sewn to a coat or shirt made of cloth or leather. Mail protected a mounted knight
against most sword blows that a foot soldier could deliver. Later in the Middle Ages, armor made from
sheets of metal covered a knight from head to toe. Although it could protect a fighter better, it was so
heavy that it made movement difficult.
Thus, underlying chivalry were rules stressing correct behavior: politeness, courage, and respect for
women and one’s enemies. For example, a defeated knight was no longer to be cast into a castle dungeon
while his family raised the ransom for his release. Instead, chivalry demanded that he be treated as a guest
or even released on his promise to return with
the ransom. Knights were also supposed to
follow certain rules in battle. It was considered
a disgrace to attack an unarmed knight. An
opponent had to be given the opportunity to
put on his armor and take up his weapons.
Another aspect of chivalry was the
emphasis on courtly love. It was generally
accepted that a
young knight would fall in love with a lady of
the court whom he admired and respected. She
represented his ideal woman, and he
performed acts of gallantry in her name. If
necessary, he defended her name and honor.
Although today’s romanticized idea of Chivalry is a “man in shining armor”
This pure devotion of a knight for his lady was
rescuing and taking care innocent young ladies, it’s original definition came
from how to take care of your horse.
celebrated in the literature and music of the
time.
Law and Order
Not all medieval disputes were settled on the battlefield. A lord of the manor was expected to
maintain a court where the people dependent on him could have quarrels resolved or crimes punished.
The lord’s decisions were based on local custom or tradition rather than a written code of laws, like that
of the Romans.
Sometimes, in serious cases, guilt or innocence was determined by trial by combat, whereby two
men who disagreed fought a battle. Since people believed that God would not allow a guilty person to
win, the accused was declared innocent if he won. Another method used by feudal courts was the trial by
ordeal. In this case, the accused had to grasp a live coal or plunge an arm into boiling water. If the person
recovered from his injuries, he was judged innocent because God had intervened and protected him.
Manorialism
The number of lords during the early Middle Ages was quite small. Peasants who farmed the lands of
the feudal lords made up perhaps 90 percent of the population of western Europe. The decline in the
level of civilization that led to the development of feudalism as a political system, also led to the
development of a new economic system called manorialism (muh-NAWR-ee-uh-liz-um) The basic unit of
the manorial system was the manor, an estate belonging to a feudal lord. A large fief might have dozens
of manors, while a small fief had only one.
Like feudalism, manorialism was a system of mutual obligations. The lord of a manor had to
protect everyone who lived on his land. His home, the manor house, was often a castle, a combination
residence and fortress that was designed to give maximum protection from raids. Usually it was
surrounded by a water-filled ditch, or moat. In time of danger, all inhabitants of a manor took refuge
within the manor house.
In return for the lord’s protection the peasants, who lived on the manor in small villages, owed
him their labor and a share of their crops. For example, they might have to work three days a week
for him, tilling his fields, repairing his buildings, or operating a mill or winepress. Women frequently
worked in the noble’s household spinning or weaving. When peasants harvested their crops, they owed a
fixed share to the lord as rent.
Some medieval peasants were free and could come and go as they pleased. Most, however, were
serfs (SURFS). Although serfs were not slave, they were bound to the land, which meant they could not
leave their manor without the lord’s permission. If a fief passed from one lord to another, so did its serfs.
Many serfs spent their entire lives on the manor where they were born. A few lucky ones were able to
accumulate enough money to buy their freedom.
Life on a Manor
A manor was a self-sufficient economic unit. Almost everything its people needed was either grown
or manufactured on the estate. For example, clothing was made from the wool of sheep raised on the
manor. Blacksmiths produced weapons and tools, and shoemakers made leather goods. Other skilled
workers, like masons and carpenters, also lived and worked on the manor.
A manor raised almost all of its own food except for such commodities as salt and spices. The chief
grain crops were wheat, barley, oats, and rye. The main vegetables were cabbage, peas, beans, turnips,
and carrots. Orchards yielded fruits in season. Part of every manor was set aside as pasture land for
grazing cattle, sheep, and swine.
The lord of the manor had many duties connected with the administration of his estate, and his
authority was unlimited. For example, he had the right to tax his people and to collect fees from everyone
who used the manor’s roads and bridges. As you know, he administered justice when necessary. In
addition, the lord provided his peasants with access to certain facilities like a baking oven, a mill for
grinding grain, and a press for making wine—all, of course, in exchange for a fee.
The chief amusements of the lord of the manor demonstrate his interest in warfare. First, there
was the joust (JOWST), or tournament. In these mock battles, mounted knights with blunt weapons
fought each other in groups or in single combat. Although jousts were supposed to be a form of
entertainment, they often resulted in death or serious injury. For sport, the lord hunted animals, often with
hawks. In the later Middle Ages, more passive games like chess and backgammon became popular with
the nobility.
The lady of a manor spent her time supervising her household and servants. She also did spinning,
weaving, and embroidery. She made periodic visits to the peasants on the estate and sometimes cared
for the sick or injured. When her husband was away, she took over the administrative duties of the manor.
She also had to be prepared to defend her home in his absence. For amusement, she played a musical
instrument or, like her husband, went hunting.
In the Middle Ages marriages were arranged for economic and political reasons. They signified a
union of lands and property, as well as families. Marriage was a means of acquiring territorial
possessions and wealth. Women of the nobility were subordinate to men and had no property rights. A
woman’s entire life was spent under a man’s protection—first her father’s and then her husband’s. A
widow was placed under the protection of her eldest son or her husband’s feudal lord.
Part Two: The Role of the Church
Along with feudalism and manorialism, the Christian church was a powerful force in the organization
of medieval life. In a time of short-lived kingdoms and decentralized government, the Church represented
stability and maintained authority through its hierarchy of officials.
During the early Middle Ages, a vast and complex church organization evolved that paralleled
the development of feudalism. By this time, the pope in Rome was recognized as the official head
of the Church in western Europe. Below him were archbishops and bishops who were chosen from the
nobility. In many ways the duties and responsibilities of these high church officials were similar to those
of a feudal lord. The Church owned large tracts of land that had to be administered, and taxes were
collected in the form of a tithe, or a tenth of a person’s income. A portion of this money was sent directly
to the pope. The remainder, however, stayed in the hands of high church officials, who often lived like
wealthy lords. The influence and authority of the Church permeated almost every aspect of medieval life,
and there was no real separation of Church and State, or religion and government. For example, the
Church maintained its own courts and made laws for members of the clergy and the non-clergy alike. It
had powerful means of enforcing its laws, and no one was exempt, not even a king.
Excommunication, or the banning of a person from the sacraments, was a dreaded punishment
because medieval Christians believed that salvation outside the Church was impossible. An
excommunicated person, even a king or queen, was to be shunned by other Christians. If a person died
while excommunicated, he or she could not receive the last rites of the faith or be buried in a church
cemetery.
The interdict, or the closing of all the churches in a particular locality, was another means of
controlling people. When a church was closed, Mass could not be said, marriages could not be performed,
and the dead could not be buried in holy ground. Popes often used the interdict against a disobedient ruler
in the hope of turning his subjects against him.
The clergy, or ordained priests of the Church, were divided into two groups, according to their way
of life. The pope, archbishops, bishops, and parish priests formed the secular clergy. The term comes
from the Latin phrase in saeculo, meaning ‘in the world.” The secular clergy lived and worked among the
people, providing counsel, preaching, and administering the sacraments. Another group of church
servants lived apart from the world, following a strictly disciplined life of poverty, chastity, and
obedience. They were called regular dergy, from the Latin word regula, meaning “rule.”
The regular clergy lived in religious communities—monasteries for men and convents for women.
Monks and nuns believed that the best way to serve God was to withdraw from worldly concerns and
devote themselves to prayer and good works. Like a manor, a monastery or convent tried to be selfsufficient. Along with the daily routine of prayer and study, monastics raised food and made the things
they needed. They owed complete obedience to the abbot or abbess who directed the religious
community, and were equal in rank to the bishops of the secular clergy.
The medieval Church performed many services that today are handled by other institutions. It
administered charity to the poor, cared for the sick in hospitals operated by nuns, and offered shelter to
travelers at monasteries or convents, because there were no inns. Some clergymen and abbesses gained
significant political influence as advisors to rulers, military leaders, or as
mayors of towns.
One of the greatest accomplishments of the medieval Church was the
preservation of classical learning. In the Middle Ages, few people could
read or write. The Church, recognizing the need for an educated clergy that
could study the holy writings, maintained most of the schools. The earliest
ones were opened in monasteries, and monks spent many long hours
studying Latin and copying by hand the manuscripts of great classical
works. The painstaking copying of these manuscripts was the only means
of preserving and transmitting literature and learning from this period and
earlier times. When towns began to establish themselves, cathedral schools
became the most important centers of learning. The first universities were
founded in the late Middle Ages.
Part Three: The Crusades
To Europeans of the Middle Ages, Palestine, at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, had a
special significance. It had been the home of Jesus and was thus the birthplace of Christianity. Every year
countless Christians, rich and poor, undertook the long and dangerous trip from western Europe to
what was known as the Holy Land. Such a journey was called a pilgrimage, and those who made it
pilgrims.
During the seventh century, the Holy Land fell into Muslim hands, but Muslim rulers still permitted
Christian pilgrims to visit Jerusalem. Conditions changed after 1000 with the invasion of the Seljuk
Turks. These Asiatic nomads, who had adopted Islam, settled in what is now eastern Turkey and rapidly
created a huge empire that included the Holy Land.
Pilgrims returning to western Europe in the eleventh century told stories of Christians who had
been killed or tortured by the Turks. These stories, although often exaggerated, spread throughout
western Europe. It is known, however, that the Turks imposed heavy tolls and taxes on those who traveled
to the Holy Land and that these tolls and the Turkish domination of the Holy Land were resented.
Calling the First Crusade
The Seljuks, an aggressive people, wanted to extend their empire westward into Byzantine territory.
In 1071 the Turks and the Byzantines met at the battle of Manzikert. The Turks defeated the Byzantines
and then proceeded to capture much of Asia Minor. Constantinople seemed to be in danger, and the years
that followed brought no relief from the Turkish threat. In 1095 the Byzantine emperor, appealed to the
pope for help. At the Council of Clermont in France, Pope Urban II called for a holy war, or Crusade,
against the Muslims. The stated purpose of the campaign was to free the Holy Land and to rescue the
Byzantine Empire from Turkish domination. Privately, Urban hoped to bring Eastern and Western
Christianity together and to increase papal prestige and influence. He also hoped to stop the warring
between feudal lords in Europe by employing their aggressive tendencies against the Turks and in the
service of Christianity.
The pope’s appeal brought thousands of volunteers who
showed their dedication to the cause by sewing a cross on
their clothes. The terms Crusade and Crusader were derived
from the Spanish word
cruzada, which means “ with a cross.” Similar terms were
adopted by other languages.
Urban’s call launched a series of military expeditions
that continued for 200 years. Volunteers
took part in them for many reasons. Some joined for purely
religious motives, as it was widely believed that dying in
battle for a holy cause would assure one’s salvation. Others
dreamed of fame, fortune, or adventure. Peasants joined
Crusader armies to win freedom from serfdom, and feudal
lords saw an opportunity to gain new lands. Merchants and
traders hoped to gain new markets and products, besides
supplying transportation for the Crusaders.
The First Crusade brought together several armies led
by European noblemen. They converged
on Constantinople in 1096, marched overland into Muslim lands, and defeated Muslim armies, capturing
much of the eastern Mediterranean. In 1099 they stormed the city of Jerusalem, massacring most of the
population, including Christians and Jews.
After their victories the Crusaders established the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which stretched from the
Red Sea to Beirut, in what is now Lebanon. A French duke became the first king. Following the
principles of feudalism, he distributed fiefs to vassals so that the entire eastern Mediterranean was
parceled out among European nobles. The First Crusade was the only truly successful military expedition
against the Muslims.
Later Crusades
Muslim power revived in the twelfth century. In 1144 the Muslims captured Edessa, a city north
east of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, and Europeans feared that the entire Holy Land might be lost. As
a result a French monk, Bernard of Clairvaux (klehr-VOE), called for a Second Crusade, which was led
by the French king and the German emperor. It lasted from 1147 to 1149. During this time the Crusaders
tried to protect Jerusalem by capturing Damascus, but they were defeated and thousands lost their lives.
In the late 1100’s a great general named Saladin restored Muslim control over much of the Holy
Land. After he captured Jerusalem in 1187, Europeans organized a Third Crusade. It was called the
Crusade of the Three Kings because the German, French, and English monarchs each commanded armies.
The Crusaders set out for the Holy Land in 1189, but problems soon arose. The German emperor,
Frederick Barbarossa, drowned in Asia Minor, and most of his army returned home. Then the French
king, Philip II, quarreled with the English king, Richard I, and the French left. Thus Richard (nicknamed
the Lion-Hearted) remained alone to face Saladin. His army captured the port city of Acre from the
Muslims but was unable to retake Jerusalem. The Third Crusade ended in 1192, when Richard concluded
a truce with Saladin that guaranteed pilgrims the right to visit Jerusalem.
The Fourth Crusade did not even reach the Holy Land. The Crusaders assembled at the Italian port of
Venice in 1202, and in exchange for transport, the Venetians persuaded the Crusaders to attack Zara, a
city on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. After the conquest of Zara, a claimant to the Byzantine throne in
Constantinople asked the Crusaders for their help. They installed him on the throne in 1203, but received
little money for their efforts. So when a rebellion broke out in 1204, they seized the city. In search of
loot, the Crusaders destroyed many of Constantinople’s greatest art treasures and precious manuscripts.
Then they established their own Latin kingdom, which survived until 1261. As a result of this Crusade,
the Byzantine Empire was seriously weakened, and Constantinople would never regain its former
splendor.
The most tragic of all the Crusades was the Children’s Crusade,
organized in 1212 by a French peasant boy named Stephen, who
persuaded thousands of children that they could accomplish what
adults had been unable to do. As many as 30,000 French boys and girls
may have joined Stephen. At the same time a German youth, Nicholas,
gathered a force of some 20,000 children.
The young French Crusaders marched to the port of Marseilles,
where most of them were carried away by ship captains and sold into
slavery. The German children also met a terrible fate. Many died on
the long march southward across the Alps, and those who managed to
board ships bound for the Holy Land were never heard from again.
Crusading continued throughout the thirteenth century but it had lost some of its appeal. Also, the
population was not expanding as rapidly as before. One expedition led by the king of Hungary invaded
Egypt without much success. In 1227 the German ruler, Frederick II, undertook a new Crusade, but did
not lead his army against the Muslims. Instead he chose to negotiate a settlement with them. This unique
Christian—Muslim truce lasted until the Muslims regained control of Jerusalem in 1244. The last
Christian possession in the Holy Land, Acre, fell to the Muslims in 1291, bringing an end to the Christian
Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Holy Land would remain in Muslim hands until the twentieth century.
Effects on Europe
The Crusades affected all aspects of medieval society. For example, European politics changed in
several ways. There was a growth in papal authority, and this period represents the high point of Church
influence in western Europe. Also, monarchs began to strengthen their governments and gain power over
the feudal nobility because many nobles died or were absent from their lands for long periods of time.
Economic growth was accelerated as luxury items from the East, like spices, silk, and precious
stones became more available. The demand for these products by wealthy Europeans revived trade. Italy’s
coastal cities became the principal ports for ships engaged in East-West trade because of their role in
transporting Crusaders to the Holy Land.
New ideas and scientific knowledge were introduced to western Europeans as they learned about
Arabic philosophy, medicine, and mathematics from the Moors in Spain. Thus the Crusades helped
change the way in which the western Europeans lived and thought.
Part 4: The Development of European Nations and Monarchies
In the early Middle Ages, hundreds of feudal nobles ruled over territories of varying size. Most
acknowledged a king or other overlord, but royal rulers had little power. During the High Middle Ages, as
economic conditions improved, feudal monarchs started to increase their power. Bit by bit over many
centuries, they built the framework for what would become the European nations of today.
England
William the Conqueror:
During the early Middle
Ages, Angles, Saxons, and Vikings invaded and settled in
England. Although feudalism developed, English rulers
generally kept their kingdoms united.
In 1066, the Anglo-Saxon king Edward died without an
heir. His death triggered a power struggle that changed
the course of English history. A council of nobles chose
Edward’s brother-in-law Harold to rule. But Duke
William of Normandy, a tough, ruthless descendant of the
Vikings, also claimed the English throne. The answer to
the rival claims lay on the battlefield.
Duke William raised an army and won the backing of the pope. He then sailed across the English
Channel. At the Battle of Hastings, William and his Norman knights triumphed over Harold. On
Christmas Day 1066, William the Conqueror, as he was now called, assumed the crown of England.
Once in power, William exerted firm control over his new lands. Like other feudal monarchs, he
granted fiefs to the Church and his Norman lords, or barons, but he kept a large amount of land for
himself. He monitored who built castles and where. He required every vassal to swear first allegiance to
him rather than to any other feudal lord. Even though William listened to the advice of his chief nobles,
he always had the last word. To learn about his kingdom, William had a complete census taken in 1086.
The result was the Domesday Book (pronounced doomsday), which listed every castle, field, and pigpen
in England. As the title suggests, the survey was as thorough and inevitable as doomsday, believed to be
God’s final day of judgment that no one could escape. Information in the Domesday Book helped
William and his successors build an efficient system of tax collecting.
Although William’s French-speaking nobles dominated England, the country’s Anglo-Saxon
population survived. Over the next 300 years, a gradual blending occurred of Norman French and AngloSaxon customs, languages, and traditions.
Henry II:
William’s successors strengthened two key areas of government: finances and law. They
created the royal exchequer, or treasury, to collect taxes. Into the exchequer flowed fees, fines, and other
dues. In 1154, an energetic, well-educated king, Henry II, inherited the throne. He broadened the system
of royal justice. As a ruler, he could not simply write new laws but had to follow accepted customs.
Henry, however, found ways to expand old ideas into law. He then sent out traveling justices to enforce
royal laws. The decisions of the royal courts became the basis for English common law, or law that was
common—the same—for all people. In time, people chose royal courts over those of nobles or the
Church. Since royal courts charged fees, the exchequer benefited from the growth of royal justice.
Under Henry II, England also developed an early jury system. When traveling justices visited an area,
local officials collected a Jury, or group of men sworn to speak the truth. (Juré in French means “sworn
on oath.”) These early juries determined which cases should be brought to trial and were the ancestors of
today’s grand jury. Later, another jury evolved that was composed of 12 neighbors of an accused. It was
the ancestor of today’s trial jury.
Henry’s efforts to extend royal power led to a bitter dispute with the Church. Henry claimed the right
to try clergy in royal courts. Thomas Becket, the archbishop of Canterbury and once a close friend of
Henry’s, fiercely opposed the king’s move. The conflict simmered for years. Then, in 1170, four of
Henry’s knights, believing they were doing Henry’s bidding, murdered the archbishop in his own
cathedral. Henry denied any part in the attack. Still, to make peace with the Church, he eased off his
attempts to regulate the clergy. Beckett, meantime, was honored as a martyr and declared a saint.
John I:
Later English rulers repeatedly clashed with nobles and the Church.
Most battles developed as a result of efforts by the monarch to raise taxes or to
impose royal authority over traditional feudal rights. Out of those struggles
evolved traditions of government that would influence the modern world.
Henry’s son John was a clever, greedy, cruel, and untrustworthy ruler.
During his reign, he faced three powerful enemies: King Philip II of France, Pope
Innocent III, and his own English nobles. He lost his struggles with each.
Ever since William the Conqueror, Norman rulers of England had held
vast lands in France.In 1205, John suffered his first setback when he lost a war
with Philip II and had to give up English-held lands in Anjou and Normandy.
Next, John battled with Innocent III over selecting a new archbishop of
Canterbury. When John attacked the Church, the pope responded by excommunicating him. He also
placed England under the interdict—as you recall, a papal order that forbade Church services in an entire
kingdom. Even the strongest ruler was likely to give in to that pressure. To save himself and his crown,
John had to accept England as a fief of the papacy and pay a yearly fee to Rome.
Finally, John angered his own nobles with heavy-handed taxes and other abuses of power. In 1215,
a group of rebellious barons cornered John and forced him to sign the Magna Carta, or great charter. In
this document, the king affirmed a long list of feudal rights. Besides protecting their own privileges, the
barons included a few clauses recognizing the rights of townspeople and the Church.
The Magna Carta contained two basic ideas that in the long run would shape government traditions
in England. First, it asserted that the nobles had certain rights. Over time, the rights that had been granted
to nobles were extended to all English citizens. Second, the Magna Carta made clear that the monarch
must obey the law. Among the most significant clauses were those that protected the legal rights of the
people: “No freeman shall be arrested or imprisoned or dispossessed or outlawed or . . . in any way
harmed . . . except by the lawful judgment of his peers or by the law of the land. . . . To none will we sell,
to none deny or delay, right or justice.”
The king also agreed not to raise new taxes without first consulting his Great Council of lords and
clergy. Many centuries later, American colonists would claim that those words meant that any taxation
without representation was unjust. In 1215, though, neither the king nor his lords could have imagined
such an idea.
Development of Parliament.
During the 1200s, English rulers often called on the Great Council
for advice. Eventually, this body evolved into Parliament. Its name comes from the French word parler,
meaning “to talk.” As Parliament acquired a larger role in government, it helped unify England.
In 1295, Edward I summoned Parliament to approve money for his wars in France. “What touches
all,” he declared, “should be approved by all.” He had representatives of the “common people” join the
lords and clergy The “commons” included two knights from each county and representatives of the towns.
Much later, this assembly became known as the Model Parliament because it set up the framework
for England’s legislature. In time, Parliament developed into a two-house body: the House of Lords with
nobles and high clergy and the House of Commons with knights and middle-class citizens.
Like King Edward I, later English monarchs summoned Parliament for their own purposes. Over the
centuries, though, Parliament gained the crucial “power of the purse.” That is, it won the right to approve
any new taxes. With that power, Parliament could insist that the monarch meet its demands before voting
for taxes. In this way, it could check, or limit, the power of the monarch.
France
The Capetians:
Monarchs in France did not rule over a unified kingdom, like William the
Conqueror did in England. Instead, the successors to Charlemagne had little power over a patchwork of
territories ruled by great feudal nobles. In 987, these feudal nobles elected Hugh Capet, the count of
Paris, to fill the vacant throne. They probably chose him because he was too weak to pose a threat to
them. Hugh’s own lands, the Ile de France around Paris, were smaller than those of many of his vassals.
Hugh and his heirs slowly increased royal power. First, they made the throne hereditary, passing it
from father to son. Fortunately, the Capetians enjoyed an unbroken succession for 300 years. Next, they
added to their lands by playing rival nobles against each other. They also won the support of the Church.
Perhaps most important, the Capetians built an effective bureaucracy. Government officials collected
taxes and imposed royal law over the king’s domain. By establishing order, they added to their prestige
and gained the backing of the new middle class of townspeople.
Philip Augustus:
An outstanding French king of this period was
Philip II, often called Philip Augustus. A bald, red-faced man who ate and
drank too much, Philip was a shrewd and able ruler. He strengthened
royal government in many ways. Instead of appointing nobles to fill
government positions, he used paid middle class officials who would owe
their loyalty to him. He granted charters to many new towns, organized a
standing army, and introduced a new national tax.
Philip also quadrupled royal land holdings. Through trickery,
diplomacy, and war, he brought English-ruled lands in Normandy, Anjou,
and elsewhere under his control. He then began to take over southern
France. Informed by the pope that the Albigensian (al buh JEHN see uhn)
heresy had sprung up in the south, he sent his knights to suppress it and
add this vast area to his domain. Before his death in 1223, Philip had
become the most powerful ruler in Europe.
Louis IX:
Perhaps the most admired French ruler of this time was Louis IX, grandson of Philip
Augustus. Louis, who ascended to the throne in 1226, embodied the ideal of the perfect medieval
monarch—generous, noble, and devoted to justice and the rules of chivalry. Within 30 years of his death,
he was declared a saint.
Saint Louis was a deeply religious man, and he pursued religious goals that were acceptable to
Christians in his day He persecuted heretics and Jews and led thousands of French knights in two wars
against Muslims.
Louis did much to improve royal government. Like Charlemagne, he sent out roving officials to
check on local officials. He expanded the royal courts, outlawed private wars, and ended serfdom in his
lands. To ensure justice, he even heard cases himself under a tree in the royal park of Vincennes. His
enormous personal prestige helped create a strong national feeling among his subjects. By the time of his
death in 1270, France was an efficient centralized monarchy.
Philip IV: Louis’s grandson, Philip IV, ruthlessly extended royal power. Always pressed for cash, he
tried to collect new taxes from the French clergy. These efforts led to a head-on clash with Pope Boniface
VIII. “God has set popes over kings and kingdoms,” declared the pope and forbad Philip to tax the clergy
without papal consent. Philip countered by threatening to arrest any clergy who did not pay up. As their
quarrel escalated, Philip sent troops to seize Boniface. The pope escaped, but he was badly beaten and
died soon afterward. Shortly after, a Frenchman was elected pope. He moved the papal court to the town
of Avignon (AH veen yohn) on the border of southern France, ensuring that future French rulers would
control religion within their own kingdoms.
The Estates General: During this struggle with the pope, Philip rallied French support by setting up the
Estates General in 1302 . This body had representatives from all three estates, or classes: clergy, nobles,
and townspeople. Although later French kings consulted the Estates General, it did not develop the same
role that the English Parliament did. It never gained the power of the purse or otherwise served as a
balance to royal power.
The Holy Roman Empire:
Otto I:
In the early Middle Ages, the emperor
Charlemagne had brought much of what is today the nation
of Germany under his rule. After Charlemagne’s death,
Germany dissolved into a patchwork of separate states ruled
by a number of powerful counts and dukes. In time, the
dukes of one of those states, Saxony, began to extend their
power over neighboring German lands. In 936, Duke Otto I
of Saxony took the title king of Germany.
Like Charlemagne, Otto I worked closely with the
Church. He appointed bishops and abbots to top
government jobs. Also like Charlemagne, he took an army
south into Italy to help the pope put down a rebellion by
Roman nobles. In 962, a grateful pope crowned Otto
emperor. Later, Otto’s successors took the title Holy Roman
emperor—”holy” because they were crowned by the pope,
“Roman” because they saw themselves as heirs to the
emperors of ancient Rome.
The Holy Roman Empire had the potential to be the strongest monarchy in Europe. German
Emperors claimed authority over much of central and eastern Europe as well as parts of France and Italy.
In fact, the real rulers of these lands were the emperor’s vassals—hundreds of dukes , counts , arch
bishops, bishops, and knights. For German emperors, the challenge was to control these nobles. It was a
challenge they never met.
Conflict with the Church:
The close ties between Otto and the Church held the seeds of conflict.
Holy Roman emperors saw themselves as protectors of Italy and the pope. They repeatedly crossed the
Alps to intervene in Italian affairs. They were tempted, too, by the desire to control the rich cities of
northern Italy.
A key conflict between emperors and popes rose over who would control appointments to high
Church offices. Like secular rulers in England and France, the Holy Roman emperor often decided who
would become bishops and abbots. As the Cluny reforms strengthened the Church, popes attempted to
end such outside interference.
Under the reforming pope Gregory VII, the conflict between emperors and the Church burst
into flames. Gregory was one of the greatest medieval popes. He was also among the most controversial.
Indeed, few Europeans of his time had a neutral view of him. Many admired and revered him. Among his
enemies, however, he probably aroused more hatred and contempt than any other pope of his time.
Gregory was determined to make the Church independent of secular rulers. To do so, he banned the
practice of lay investiture. Under this practice, the emperor or another lay person (a person who is not a
member of the clergy) “invested,” or presented, bishops with the ring and staff that symbolized their
office. Only the pope, said Gregory, had the right to appoint and install bishops in office.
Pope Gregory’s ban brought an angry response from
the Holy Roman emperor Henry IV. He argued that bishops
held their lands as royal fiefs. Since he was their overlord,
Henry felt entitled to give them the symbols of office. The
feud heated up as the two men exchanged insulting notes.
Meanwhile, rebellious German princes saw a chance to
undermine Henry by supporting the pope.
In 1076, Gregory excommunicated Henry, freeing
his subjects from their allegiance to the emperor. The pope
then headed north to crown a new emperor. Faced with
revolts at home, Henry was forced to make peace with the pope. In January 1077, Henry crossed the icy
Alps. He found the pope staying at a castle in Canossa and presented himself as a repentant sinner.
Gregory knew that Henry was only trying to save his throne. But according to the tradition and law of the
Church, the pope, as a priest, had to forgive a confessed sinner. Gregory thus lifted the order of
excommunication. Henry quickly returned to Germany and subdued his rebellious nobles. In later years,
he took revenge on Gregory when he led an army to Rome and forced the pope into exile.
Concordat of Worms: The struggle over investiture dragged on for almost 50 years. Finally, in 1 122,
both sides accepted a treaty known as the Concordat of Worms (VORHMS). In it, they agreed that the
Church had the sole power to elect and invest bishops with spiritual authority The emperor, however, had
the right to invest them with fiefs. Although this compromise ended the investiture struggle, new battles
were soon raging between popes and emperors.
Frederick I:
During the 1100s and 1200s, ambitious German emperors sought to master Italy. The
emperor Frederick I, called Barbarossa, or “red beard,” dreamed of building an empire that stretched from
the Baltic to the Adriatic. For years, he fought to bring the wealthy cities of northern Italy under his
control. With equal energy, they resisted. By joining forces with the pope in the Lombard League, they
managed to defeat Barbarossa’s armies.
Barbarossa did succeed, however, in arranging a marriage between his son Henry and Constance,
heiress to Sicily and southern Italy. That move entangled German emperors even more deeply in Italian
affairs.
Frederick II:
Sicily, a rich island kingdom in the Mediterranean, had a sophisticated court, where
Muslim and Christian influences existed side by side. The child of Henry and Constance, Frederick II,
was raised in this rich court. Fredcrick was bright and well educated, fluent in Arabic, Greek, French, and
several other languages. He valued the scientific learning of the Muslim world and saw himself as a man
of reason. He was also an arrogant, able, and cynical leader, willing to use any means to achieve his ends.
As Holy Roman emperor, Frederick spent little time in Germany. Instead, he pursued his ambitions
in Italy. There, he clashed repeatedly and unsuccessfully with several popes. Like his grandfather,
Frederick also tried but failed to subdue the cities of northern Italy. While Frederick was embroiled in
Italy, he gave in to many demands of his German nobles. As a result, they grew increasingly independent.
Although the Holy Roman Empire survived, it remained fragmented into many feudal states. The
emperors thus lost control of Germany at a time when French and English rulers were building the
foundations for stable, unified governments. The German people paid a high price for their emperors’
ambitions: They would not achieve unity for another 600 years.
Southern Italy and Sicily, too, faced centuries of upheaval. There, popes turned to the French to
overthrow Frederick’s heirs. A local uprising against French rule in Sicily led to 200 years of chaos as
French and Spanish rivals battled for power. The region that had once been a thriving center of European
culture was left in ruins.
The Church Under Innocent III:
In the 1200s, the Roman
Catholic Church reached its peak of power. Reforming popes like
Gregory VII claimed the right to depose kings and emperors.
Gregory’s successors greatly expanded papal power.
Innocent III, who took office in 1198, embodied the triumph of the
Church. As head of the Church, he claimed supremacy over all other
rulers. The pope, he said, stands “between God and man, lower than
God but higher than men, who judges all and is judged by no one.”
Innocent clashed with all the powerful rulers of his day. More
often than not, the pope came out ahead. As you have read, when
King John of England dared to appoint an archbishop of Canterbury
without the pope’s approval, Innocent excommunicated the king and
placed his kingdom under interdict. Innocent ordered the same
punishment for France when Philip II tried unlawfully to annul his marriage. The Holy Roman emperor
Frederick II also felt the wrath of the powerful pope.
In 1209, Innocent, aided by Philip II, launched a brutal crusade, or holy war, against the
Albigensians in southern France. The Albigensians wanted to purify the Church and return to the simple
ways of early Christianity. Tens of thousands of people were slaughtered in the Albigensian Crusade.
For almost a century after Innocent’s death, popes pressed their claim to supremacy. During this
period, though, the French and English monarchies were growing stronger. In 1296, Philip IV of France
successfully challenged Pope Boniface VIII on the issue of taxing the clergy. After Philip engineered the
election of a French pope, the papacy entered a period of decline.
Early castles were simple wooden affairs like the one on the left built by William the Conquerer. The
English castle on the right shows the more
traditional stone fortresses built 200 years
later.