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Reading Summaries American Revolutions Chaz Beasley Crosby – “Infectious Disease” - densities similar across the world before 1492 - epidemics of disease changed the migration dynamics – made more people want to come to America - disease from Europe and Africa killed off swaths of natives, huge labor shortage - epidemic either means better bargaining or more slavery - transoceanic voyage inhospitable - slaves more resistant than natives but still susceptible, brought over in large #s - Europe had a population boom, many went to the Americas - euros still susceptible to disease, though not as big a problem Armitage – “3 Concepts of Atlantic History” - Atlantic history is young - Creation of Judeo-Christian philosophy idea - Some begin with Atlantic history in WWI, leaves out south Atlantic; an ethnically homogenous view of Atlantic history - 3 types of Atlantic history – trans-Atlantic, circum-Atlantic, cis-Atlantic - Circum-Atlantic is the history of the Atlantic as a center of exchange, transcends national/international boundaries - Trans-Atlantic looks at national interactions, seen in a north-south, inter-imperial manner before; option of east-west dynamic a possibility now - Cis-Atlantic is looking at one particular place in context of the greater Atlantic world - Term coined by Jefferson, expanded usage here Linebaugh & Rediker, The Many Headed Hydra, p 1-70 From Lecture: 1) Themes a) Expropriation and enclosure; the impact on disenfranchised Britains b) Struggle for alternative ways of life; the development of counter-cultures building resistance to imperial rule c) patterns of cooperation and resistance (Hewers of Wood, Drawers of water, building ports and ships, maintaining life support on land and at sea) 2) Thesis: Expropriation leads to new kind of workers who are controlled with fear by a regime of terror in Britain. New forms of self-organization arise due to the desire to resist authoritarian rule. The new counter cultures arise as a result of deliberate attempts for resistance and are NOT ACCIDENTAL. From Section: Issues with the book: 1) Hydra is based on extremely limited view. Sources are from “high society” – think Shakespeare, Francis Bacon’s treatise, other government documents. While Linebaugh/Rediker say that they are writing a story from below, they analyze the people from “below” with sources that offer limited perspectives; members of “below” aren’t majorly cited in the book. 2) The examples in the book also offer a very limited scope—too anecdotal. The incidences they discuss in each chapter are very specific and do not speak to the larger movements of the period. Is the problem of being too anecdotal indicative of Atlantic history in general? 3) An interesting view is to think about whether all the different members of the Hydra head are working together to fight authority, or if they are a chaotic mass that work for their own purposes and just so happen to be fighting the same opponent. Introduction: 1) Linebaugh/Rediker use the Hydra and Hercules imagery to describe the relationship between British imperial rule and the disenfranchised people who make up the mass exodus out of Britain. 2) Hercules/Hydra myth was used to rationalize colonialism and economic development. i) “Labors of Hercules symbolized economic development: the clearing of land, the draining of swamps and the development of agriculture, as well as the domestication of livestock, the establishment for commerce, and the introduction of technology” (2). ii) Many-headed Hydra as the “antithetical symbol of disorder and resistance, a powerful threat to the building of state, empire, and capitalism” (2). iii) Also note that as one head of the hydra is chopped off, two heads grow out of the hydra. The British saw themselves as encountering a chaotic beast that had to be suppressed. iv) “From the beginning of English colonial expansion in the early seventeenth century through the metropolitan industrialization of the early nineteenth, rulers referred to the Hercules-hydra myth to describe the difficulty of imposing order on increasingly global systems of labor” (3). 3) Hydra-myth for historians i) “The hydra became a means of exploring multiplicity, movement, and connection, the long waves and planetary currents of humanity. . . sailors, pilots, felons, lovers, translators, musicians, mobile workers” were considered part of the hydra. Chapter 1: The Wreck of the Sea Venture July 25, 1609, passengers on the Sea-Venture were heading from England to Plymouth to work on a plantation for the Virginia Company of London but were caught in a storm and landed in Bermuda instead. Bermuda turned out to be beautiful, and “Edenic land of perpetual spring and abundant food.” Compared to starving conditions in Virginia, Bermuda was paradise. The shipwrecked passengers wanted to stay in Bermuda while facing pressure from authorities of the Virginia Company to continue the voyage. Passengers on the Sea-Venture were not the ideal British citizen (they were being cast off to Virginia, anyhow) “were sailors, religious radicals, antonimonians who believed that God’s grace had placed them above the law” Culture of resistance and violent suppression on the island “During the forty-two weeks on the island, sailor and others among the ‘idle, untoward , and wretched had organized five different conspiracies against the Virginia Company and their leaders, who had responded with two of the earliest capital punishments in English America, hanging one man and executing another by firing squad to quell the resistance and carry on with the task of colonization” (13). Expropriation: Most people who traveled to the colonies were victims of British enclosure. “Big landowners radically changed agricultural practices by enclosing arable lands, evicting smallholders, and displacing rural tenants, forcing thousands of men and women off the land and denying them access to commons. By the end of the sixteenth century there were twelve times as many propertyless people as there had been a hundred years earlier" (17). “Expropriation and resistance fueled the process of colonization, peopling the Sea-Venture and many other transatlantic vessels during the first half of the seventeenth century. While some went willingly, as the loss of lands made them desperate for a new beginning, many more went unwillingly” (20). Alternatives: Shakespeare’s The Tempest tries to link colonization and the voyage as the pursuit of utopia. Linebaugh/Rediker tie major themes in Shakespeare’s Tempest with the major themes of the period: alternative livelihoods, authority, class discipline, cooperation among “motley groups.” “Thus did popular anticapitalist traditions—a world without work, private property, law, felony, treason, or magistrate—find their perfect antithesis in Thomas dale’s Virginia, where drumbeats called settlers to labor and the Laws Divine, Moral, and Martial promised terror and death to any who dared to resist. Military men transformed Bermuda and Virginia from places of ‘liberty and the fullness of sensuality’ to place of bondage, war, scarcity, and famine. “ (35). Chapter 2: Hewers of Wood and Drawers of Water Francis Bacon, using the Hercules metaphor to promote a “holy war” as justification for the brutal authoritarian regime that was imposed upon the colonies. “bacon’s advertisement for a holy war was thus a call for several types of genocide, which found its sanction in biblical and classical antiquity. Bacon thereby gave form to the formless, as the groups he named embodied a monstrous, many-headed hydra” (40). The Curse of Labor: “Hewers of wood, drawers of water” is the term used by “seventeenth-century London artisans in their protests against deskilling, mechanization, cheap labor, and the loss of independence” (41). Essentially, the working class and the disenfranchised, slaves, etc. Labor imported to American colonies from Africa, Europe was necessary for “growth of capitalism as they di the work that could not or would not be done by artisans in workshops, manufactures, or guilds.” Labor work supported the infrastructure of merchant capitalism: preparing soil, draining the fens, building ports for long-distance trade, maintaining life supports for communities on land and at sea, from chopping and gathering to pumping and toting. “The labors of hewing and drawing were usually carried out by the weakest members of the demographic structure; the dispossessed, the strangers, the women, the children, the people in England, Ireland, west Africa, or North America mostly likely to be kidnapped, spirited, trepanned, or “barbadosed,” Terror was inherent, for such work was a curse, a punishment. The Formless, disorderly laboring class had been given a new form, and a productive one” (49). Terror: Terror was the typical way of English rule in the mainland and in the colonies. “In England the expropriation of the peasantry was accompanied by systematic violence and terror, organized through the criminal sanction, public searches, the prisons, martial law, capital punishment, banishment, forced labor, and colonization. Magistrates used cruel and pitiless legislation to whip, dismember, brand, hang, and burn thousands; privy searches rounded up thousands more masterless men and women” (50). forced into labor “Through the transatlantic institution of indentured servitude, merchants and their ‘spirits’ (i.e., abductors of children and adults) shipped some two hundred thousand workers to American shored in the seventeenth century. Some had been convicted of crimes and sentenced to penal servitude, others were kidnapped or spirited, while yet others went by choice” (58). “”By 1617 ruling-class policy was to ship the expropriated to far-flung labor markets, and various slave trades grew up to accommodate and extend the policy. Thus began what in a later day would be called the middle passage”. Terror was instrumental; indeed, it was a mechanism fo the labor market” (60). Specter of Hercules The targets of Bacon’s “holy war” were: “Caliban – natives of America, Caribbean. Canaanites (Israelites), pirates, land rovers, high way thieves, assassins, armed female fighters.-, Anabaptists. - these groups were targeted as people who were threats to the establishment and needed to be re-incorporated into society: “to turn the many-headed hydra back into hewers of wood and drawers of water”( 70). Ch5//Hydrarchy: Sailors, Pirates, and the Maritime State Richard Braithwaite supported Parliament in the English Revolusion – coined the term “hydrarchy” It identifies two related developments of the late 1600s - organization of maritime state from above - self-organization of sailors from below } together, these constitute the maritime state the ship, specifically the ship in the Atlantic, drives capitalism but also serves as a site of resistance this understanding of hydrarchy weaves in well with the themes of the course I. Imperial Hydrarchy - Foundations for capitalism and imperialism: seizure of land and labor in England, Ireland, Africa and the Americas - Deriving new strength through various legal measures o Law and Ordinances Marshall Authorized impressments (labor) Warranted death penalty for resistance o Navigation Act of 1651 (merchant shipping industry) o Articles of War of 1652 (royal navy) } these last two extend commercial and military power by sea - These developments accentuate the centrality of the Atlantic - The British begin to challenge the Dutch using foreign trade to advances hipping and acquire economic power o Also, harsh discipline - Sir Willim Petty originates the labor theory of value - o Does not think of workers in terms of morality, but rather, through number, weight and measure (quantifiable elements) By the 1960s, Royal Navy had become England’s greatest employer of labor, greatest consumer of material, greatest industrial enterprise 4 ways of exploiting human labor: 1) plantation commercialist estate for agricultural production 2) petty production yeoman farmer, prosperous artisan 3) putting-out system system of manufactures 4) the ship united all the others in sphere of circulation - - Many ships were Dutch, having been seized during war. Seamen, therefore, were not English. labor shortage. The challenge was to reproduce, organize, mobilize and maintain sailing proletariat Press gangs: violence and terror as the state response to labor shortage. Permanent image of lame, starving sailor Forced internationalism among sailors Also, cross-cultural (cross-continental) working class dialogue Emergence of new languages o Nautical English o “Sabir of Mediterranean o W. African – pidgin. Go-between language, product of multi-language situation, basic communication II. Sailors Hydrarchy - - - Within imperial hydrarchy grew a different, proletarian, oppositional hydrarchy One appearance of the sailors hydrarchy = piracy Control of piracy devolved from top of society to bottom At the bottom, seamen organized a social world apart from authority Tradition of common seamen: “Jamaica Discipline” or “Law of Pirateers” o Justice o Class hostility to shipmasters, owners, gentlemen adventurers Buccaneers: exiles. Political radicals, religious radicals, indentured servants, prostitutes, prisoners Buccaneers drew on ancient and medieval systems o The international maritime custom Equal sharing of goods Collective and democratic consultation Went to uninhabited islands, formed maroon communities Multi-racial, hunter-gatherer settlements Transmission of the pirate experience - - - - o Ballads, folktales, songs, pop memory Why did sailors desert merchant ships/ become pirates? o Impressment o Poor provisions and health o Harsh discipline o Long confinement aboard ship Pirate ships sometimes underwent mutinies, as well But they were egalitarian for the time Black pirates were both freemen and escaped slaves Cultural exchange across race Women outside of their roles: metaphoric to male pirate symbol. Pg. 167 Hydrarchy was attacked because of the danger it posed to valuable slave trade with Africa o Series of sailors mutinies (1716-1726) shook the slave trade Slave ships sometimes captured and converted to pirate duties 1722: call for suppression of piracy o Executions o Enhanced naval patrols o Corpses hanged along the coast Conflict between slave traders and piracy linked back to the end of War of Spanish Succession, 1713 PM Robert Walpole took personal interest in ending piracy Violent rhetoric legitimated use of gallows Whigs and Tories alike repeated repressions of 1690s Ch6//Outcasts of the Nations of the Earth - - - - 1741: St. Patrick’s Day: remembering that St. Patrick abolished slavery in Ireland o Arsonist set fire to NYC Ft. George o 13 fires: conspiracy by soldiers, sailors, slaves from Ireland, the Caribbean and Africa. These are the “outcasts of the nations of the earth” o Context: War of Jenkins’ Ear o 13 African men burned at the stake in revenge for destructive fire Conspiracy of diverse proletariate to incite urban insurrection Emerged from the waterfront Seaports had sailors to guard cities and masses of workers laboring in maritime sector of economy 30% workers = Black Docks and taverns: meeting places for English, Irish, African, Native American, W. Indian threats to concentrated, established power of cosmopolitan working class Slave resistance: related to development of Afro-Christianity Political effects of slave resistance o Fear o Repression (police, patrols) Also, opposite extreme of new opposition to slavery o Pamphleteers influenced by slave militancy John Allen Thomas Paine - Multiracial, heterogenous mobs. Seaport crowds Motley crew led resistance to the Stamp Act Events in New York and Boston o Burning of schooner gaspee, 1772 - Motley crew: image of revolution from below o “Hydra,” “many-headed monster,” “reptile” o Many-headedness implies democracy run wild: too democratic - Vibrant belief in moral conscience stands above civil law of state, and legitimizes resistance to oppression - Subject = man and his conscience citizen - Object = life nation - Two slightly separate sets of complaints o Patriots Taxation w/o rep, denial of free trade, limitation of press, eccles. Intolerance, expense and intrusion of standing army o Sailors, slaves Impressment, terror, working to death, kidnapping, confinement } both rejected arbitrary arrest and judgment w/o peers/juries multi-class movement toward independence - contradictions of revolutionaries: forcibly promoting images of stability, good order. Hesitations of Jefferson, Paine: pg. 238 American Thermidor: attack against mobs, slaves, sailors. Effort to reform the mob, remove militant elements. Ch7//A Motley Crew in the American Revolution - - Motley crew: destabilization of imperial civil society Definitions o #1: Urban mob, revolutionary crowd of port/town: armed agglomerations of crews and gangs o #2: Organized gang of workers. Squad of people performing similar tasks/tasks toward one goal Economies of 18th c. Atlantic depended on this unit of human cooperation Overall concept of “motley” as multiethnic This was seen as a weakness (pg 213- I don’t’ quite understand why) but the diversity transformed into a strength Motley crew, in transitioning from a merely technical role to a more political one, extended its range of activity Vehicle, mechanism or symbol of resistance - Common experience of sailors, relevance of hydrarchy tradition o How to resist impressments: violent battle, burrning boats of press gangs - Knowles Riot, Boston o 1747, 50 sailors deserted commander Knowles and HMS lark. In response, Knowles sent press gang, 300 sailors seized o Mob confronted Mass. Governor Shirley, reminded him of past violence o Adams was an observer of Knowles incident. Justification for mob violence, the mob embodies fundamental rights of man o His “Rights of Englishmen” became universal rights of man Diverse rebellious subject: more than just Englishmen - He founded Independent Advertiser: radical public reporting resistances - Another connection between 1747 and 1776: Mayhew’s sermon, discourse concerning unlimited submission and non-resistance to higher Powers - Passive non-resistance = slavery - General strike, 1768 - Nauticus wrote “Rights of Sailors Vindicated” o Sailors life as one of slavery Defended right to self defense - Motley crew helped establish abolitionist movement in London - Tacky’s Revolt: bloodiest revol, Jamaica 1760 - Guerilla warfare continued a year after Tacky was decapitated - Around this time: Philmore’s “Two Dialogues on the Man-Trade - Growing literature advocating equality, that one person cannot be the property of another - James Otis, Jr. calls for immediate emancipation - All men are free-born. Devaluation of the status “free-born” - After 1765: tangible shift in imperial and colonial ruling classes, opening the possibility for more rebellion - PA Ft. Wilson Riot Act, 1779 (Paine) - MA Riot Act of 1786 (Adams) } distancing themselves from radical belief in creative democratic force - - Position of moderate revolutionaries: keeping slaves out of revolutionary coalitions British manipulated this by offering freedom to servants and slaves willing to join royal forces o American leaders then enforced slavery, excluded Blacks Attitude that sailors were irresponsible citizens. Pg. 239: class prejudice Slaves and sailors thus removed from process of revolution, whereas previously they had been essential components Evolution of motley crew…re-definition (by new ruling class) of race and citizenship to specifically exclude them, divide and marginalize Vectors of revolution o Sailors: vector, transmitting revolutionary spirit from N. America to the Caribbean o Dispersed around Atlantic: multidirectional vector of revolution …towards Haitian revolution - Olaudah Equino: evolving understanding of freedom, of self-definition - Exposure to different oppressions: experience, observation - “citizen of the world” = cosmopolitanism - Pan-Africanism Ch8//The Conspiracy of Edward and Catherine Despard - - - Edward Despard: leader in organizing revolutionary army in England and Ireland against the government to declare a republic Hanged, beheaded Soldiers had collaborated with dockworkers, common laborers, and sailors Called Parliament the “Den of Thieves” and the government the “Man Eaters” E. Despard was publicly religious Catherine Despard: African American woman, active in prisoners’-rights movement Also worked at highest levels of society and government Revolutionary struggles have been framed as part of English, French or Irish history – but they were Atlantic. History-writing has eclipsed Catherine Despard, who remained a shadow within a shadow within a shadow (a revolutionary black woman – a “solitary shadow waling on the margin on non-entity”) An Atlantic perspective is necessary to understanding Despard because he lived in both European and American continents Arrived in Jamaica in the aftermath of Tacky’s revolt Several female freedom fighters in Jamaica Dependence on African women, and in Nicaragua, on native Mosquito Indians Racist Baymen prompted “people of color” to petition in 1787 against their exclusion from land by reason of race. Joshua Jones was a main signatory Edward’s use of the term “the Human Race” was radical o Took much of its power from its opposition to a contary conception of race that had emerged in the 1790s o The Orange Order had formed in Ireland as a terrorist church-and-cking mob, creating religious bigotry 1800-1803: slaves were especially active Edward’s future fellow prisoner, Thomas Spence, wrote a commonist plan The Marine Republic In some sense, Despard’s conspiracy was a continuation of the Irish rebellion and its expansion into England Rebellion of 1798, slaughter of thirty thousand, many of them (United Irish) transported to Jamaica where they were drafted into regiments Linebaugh and Rediker think of the prison as an important meeting place for insurrectionists. Despard spent much of the 1790s in jail Catherine Despard worked with other prisoners’ wives, organizing a defense campaign in Parliament and the newspapers Ideas for Despard’s conspiracy were “polytopian” - - o Freedom from the Mosquito Indians of Nicaragua who had “highest ideas of freedom” o Equality from the struggles of the motley crew in the American Revolution o Justice from the ethics of United Irishmen Despard compared revolutionary struggle of the human race with divine agency Ottobah Cugoano: London servant originally from Gold Coast, slave in Grenada o Abolitionist, experienced preacher and writer, powerful voice of freedom, devout believer in the “everlasting gospel” o Referred to “many shades of the rainbow,” instead of different races o Advocated abolition of death penalty After each major uprising, racist doctrine of white supremacy further evolved o After Tacky’s Revolt, History of Jamaica by Edward Long o After American Revolution, An Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure of the Human Species, Samuel Smith 1787 Breen, “Empire of Goods” Circulation and trade of goods form social and economic ties between the colonies and Britain Few historians have taken an “imperial” approach to studying the American revolution; that is, one that considers specifically the mother colony and the revolution in the larger picture of the world, and how this relationship affected the average colonist. Charles McLean Andrews attempted this. Fragile institutional ties between the colonists and Britain. Must look at British empire not as an institutional structure but as a process of cultural ties Empire characterized by vast movement of people (Bernard Bailyn) John J. McCusker and Russel Menard describe the economic development of the colonies and Britain during the pre-revolutionary period in their book, “The Economy of British America” o Staple thesis: Europeans who settled in North America were governed by economic interests- wanted to improve their economic status. o Different exports for different regions (tobacco, rice, indigo, fish, etc.) Exports played key role in history of North America o Expanding market creates linkages Expanding industrialization in Britain creates market for colonial exports o “birth of commercial society” Consumer demand drove economic change o Status associated with buying certain items o More peddlers, shops, merchants o Advertising Must look at consumption as well as production to understand economic history Easy manufacturing of goods blurred social boundaries; more “luxury” items now affordable Pre-capitalist theory: American farmers did not participate in the risks associated with free capitalism and trade, instead were self-sufficient. o Rebukes this; history shows no proof. Colonists were very capitalistic Market economy did not destroy community of colonies; maybe even promoted it Impossible for colonies to be completely self-sufficient; commerce was necessary Surprising prosperity, generated by increased commerce with Britain, found in the quickly expanding colonies Both colonists and British citizens sensitive to their interdependence 1740s- American consumerism drastically increases o Increased exports to pay for this o Seen at even the lowest levels of colonial society, not just rich o Tea was a central item- not just for rich anymore Introduction of competition and choice for consumers Distribution of goods created complex commercial networks (merchants, shopkeepers, buyers, colonists, British, governments, etc.) Colonists seldom complained about the Navigation Acts o Costs offset by benefits Increasing colonial objections to economic framework that required all trade to go through British ships and merchants; they wanted a bigger share of the profits. Americans tried to ship goods themselves. Scots moved in to establish trade with Chesapeake colonies. o Increasing competition served to draw colonial consumers even closer to mother colony. Commercial relationship promoted by small shops and stores. Peddlers also played important role Drastic expansion of credit in the mid 1700’s- entire chain of rural American merchandising with British depended on this Consumer goods became a new “vocabulary”, “social discourse” “Road to Americanization ran through Anglicization” o Colonists firsts had to be submerged into British commercial culture in order to form new identity When later colonists, after series of grievances, declared independence from British commercialism (non-importation/exportation), the political ties of the empire fell apart Davis, “Slavery in Colonial North America” DuBois and Garrigus, “The French Caribbean in the Eighteenth Century” French St. Domingue began as outlaw territory. Castaways sand indentured servants fleeing other French colonies came first, taking Spanish land. There was lot of piracy. In 1664 French government took over, it became Saint-Domingue on the western sides. Focused on Sugar in the island. This shaped the life. Quickly became the most significant possession. By middle of the eighteenth century, it was the wealthiest French colony and largest sugar exporter. Planters invested heavily in their estates. Divided into three provinces. There was a difference between the French side and the Spanish, Santo Domingo. Le Cap was the big Atlantic City; a lot of slaves came here first. It was more connected to France than Port Au Prince, the official capital At first the plantations were worked by a mix of indentured servants and slaves, as the economy expanded servants declined and slaves rose. By 18th century slaves were 90% of the population. Wealth was described in terms of the numbers of slaves one had They were an import based society for sustenance and slaves. The imbalance between slaves and whites was extreme. These plantations were much larger than in NA colonies. Treatment of slaves governed by Code Noir issued by Louis XIV in 1685, but in practice this was ignored and violence was essential. Slaves were divided into work gangs and labored under other slave, commandeurs (drivers) - the slave elite, often island born, didn’t do field work. Several hundred racist free blacks were wealthy planters and merchants and this would lead the way to revolution.- they cultivated coffee and indigo (cheaper to produce) Saint Domingue had a secure slave regime. The security of the master class rested on cooperation between whites and free colored. 1730s- Marechaussee founded as police force to supplement the colonial militia in policing slaves. Used free colored men Free colored did not have equal rights however they were ordered to do policing jobs and only after the French Revolution did they begin to press for rights. Poor Whites had it bad too. – they wanted land and were treated poorly The wealthy also had complaints- resented trade laws Debate over reforms presaged conflicts and accusations- commonplace during Revolution years. St. Domingue had relatively small rebel tradition until 1791 Conclusion- St Domingue’s rapid transformation from near empty frontier to densely populated economic powerhouse made it ripe for tensions. The plantation economy transformed the landscape and the circulation of products, people and ideas. Free people of color, wealthy and content with the order were frustrated by legal discrimination, Whites were divided in complex ways wanting to transform their relationship with France, and the enslaved lived under brutal regime…. All setting the stage for revolt!! Purvis – “Seven Year’s War and Its Political Legacy” - British attack French forts in hopes of a quick victory to oust French from frontier - Plan fails, British seen as beatable, declare war on French in 1756 - 1st war where Americans fought alongside British regulars - Colonial assemblies used war shortages to force governors to comply with their wishes - Assemblies that did send troops often sent them ill-prepared to fight Tensions arise over British officers getting precedent (in all cases) over colonial officers Many British citizens initially opposed war, but warmed to it in 1757 William Pitt becomes PM, and new resolve to defeat France comes Pitt offers to address colonial war grievances and reimburse for war debts Era of British-Colonial goodwill from 1758-63 Parliament did not know (or care) about colonial help during war effort Large debts led to call for taxing the colonies, tighter regulation Increased taxes and regulations took colonials by surprise, angered them, thought the Crown was ungrateful for colonial help in war 7 yrs war sets stage for future British-American antagonism Holton, Forced Founders Introduction - The author challenges two notions: (a) the gentry was brimming with confidence before the revolution. (b) the gentry was in complete control of its relations with Indians, smallholders, slaves, and British merchants. CH I – Land Speculators Versus Indians and the Privy Council - Virginia was very interested in the Kentucky area but that was key hunting ground for Native Americans. The British didn’t want colonists to expand to KY because they didn’t want them to be attacked by Native Americans, and then have to send troops to protect the colonists. - Iroquois, who didn’t care about their land in KY, sold rights to land at the Fort Stanwix cession. - Many tribes north and south of the Ohio River reconciled differences in an antiBritish league. But northern Indians and southern Indians fought even while they were both in the league. - In 1774, Dunmore’s War. After an Indian committed a revenge raid for the murder of a family member, Virginian settlers used the opportunity to send 2000 men to attack the Shawnee and the Mingo (who wouldn’t give up the land in KY peacefully). - VA forced Indians to give deed to all land east of the Ohio River. - VA was angered by Britain’s continued enforcement of the Proclamation of 1763 and the Quebec Act, which gave land west of Ohio River to Quebec. - VA revolutionaries like George Mason, Richard Henry Lee, Washington, Jefferson, and Patrick Henry Lee were all land speculators. CH 2 – Tobacco Growers Versus Merchant and Parliament - There was conflict between planters and merchants. Many planter gentlemen committed suicide over huge debt. - Navigation Acts were considered unfair and caused drops in prices of tobacco. - Colonists hated the Navigation Acts but didn’t necessarily want to repeal them because they believed it helped make Britain great. - - By 1774, Nav Acts and manufacturing limitations were getting unbearable. The wanted unrestrained commerce with the world. Low money supply was a HUGE problem and caused lots of undervaluing of goods. Slave trade: gentry wanted no more but smallholders in the piedmonts wanted more. There were conflicts over duties on slaves. The Privy Council vetoed Virginian gentlemen’s efforts to end slave shipments. Privy council rejected VA gentry on both Indian land and slave trade and sided with the gentry’s opponents. Both instances increased white VA’s debt. Boycotts, 1769-74: Non Importation Boycott, 1769 (p75-129) The gentry are in a poor financial state in the 1760s. They have lost two forms of middleman income: land grants and trade with smallholders. In addition, they consume more and more luxury goods to maintain their class status. This pulls them into deep debt with Britain. The gentry is angry at Parliament over the Proclamation Line (limits their land), the Navigation Acts (limits their trade), the Stamp/Townshend/Tea/Intolerable Acts (limits their civil rights and takes their money). As protest boycotts spring up in other colonies, the gentry start one of their own in 1769. It serves two purposes: allows them to protest Parliament and bring down their debts. Boycott doesn’t work because smallholders are in a better financial place and refuse to cooperate. A second boycott attempt in 1774 works much better thanks to a recession (1772) that induces smallholders to comply. This boycott is also better supervised because it is organized inter-colonially through the Continental Association. Smallholders are also in debt but are doing better than the gentry between 1766-1770 thanks to four bumper crops of tobacco and less extravagant spending. The recession of 1772 hit them hard and they comply with non-importation and non-exportation associations in 1774. They withhold tobacco and believe that the prices will eventually go up. (crop withholding associations in 1773 begin as local affairs, but failed to raise support for growing prices. They believed the house of Burgesses should be in charge of this. When the House of Burgesses failed to do so the small holders and the gentlemen decided to end exportation of trade Non-exportation was only in part a protest against the anti- American Coercive Acts that parliament adopted in 1774, but also very economical as well.. Indian threats were a key reason for the Proclamation Line. Britain didn’t want to pay for any more costly Indian wars. The Indians will come into play again this week as the civil war between the British heats up in 1775. To sum up: There are both broad political/economic reasons for VA discontent (Proc Line, Nav Acts, new taxes in 1760s, infringement of rights) and specific local political/economic ones (land grants, fear of slave revolt, recession, debt). Part Three: Unintended Consequences 1775-1776 (p131-End) End of 1774 copies of Continental Association arrive in London Brits think colonists cut trade with Britain to increase trade with France Resulted in New England Restraining Act- prohibit all foreign trade VA economic isolation unforeseen when voting to stop trade w. Britain With non-exportation plan came decision to close courts in parts of MD and VA Stopped trying debt cases, commoners less intimidated by gentry Chapter 5: Free Virginians Versus Slaves and Governor Dunmore Oct, 1775: Brit navy attacked Hampton, VA Brought Rev. War to the South “mulatto” slave, Joseph Harris possibly responsible for battle? Familiar with Chesapeake, navigated for owner, Henry King Ran away to join VA’s Lord Dunmore While sailing, storm washed boat aground, rebels raided, found slaves Harris escaped with Matthew Squire, Capt. of bigger boat Rebels demanded Harris be returned, Squire refused No way to settle peacefully, Squire attacked Thousands of slaves ran away to work for Brits Often recaptured and subjected to worse conditions, sometimes got away Result: motivated white Virginians to declare independence What happened in 1775 VA to turn boycott into revolution? Brit army invaded Mass., VA afraid they’d come down there too Lord Dunmore offered freedom to patriots slaves who joined him Wouldn’t have mattered except slaves took advantage of the offer I. Afro-Virginians usually victims, but as pop. grew, violence against whites increased Whites feared large-scale slave revolt (frequent plotting during 7 yrs. War) Feared Indian-slave alliance, tho never materialized VA feared Britain would use their slaves against them History of doing so (Francis Drake in the 1570’s Caribbean) 1774, William Draper’s pamphlet, “Proclame Freedom to their Negroes” James River watershed plot Four slave conspiracies, may or may not have been connected Whites terrified II. 1775, Gov. Dunmore moves VA’s ammunition from center of Williamsburg to warship Patriots believe he’s weakening them to aid slave rebellion Gov. Dunmore was in good favor with Patriots 1774 Attacked Indians, pushing them away from VA to Kentucky Jan. 1775 named daughter “Virginia” Movement of gunpowder made him villain overnight Townspeople show up with weapons, allow town council meeting Leave peaceably, gunpowder stays Next day Dunmore reveals if any senior Brit is harmed, Dunmore would declare slaves free and “reduce city of Wmsburg to ashes” (145) In slave provinces, this tactic was Brit’s best weapon Leaders in Williamsburg thought the best thing was to not annoy Dunmore Countryside counties formed independent militias, 600 ppl. headed to Williamsburg Gentry terrified- just wanted to prevent fight Dunmore reiterated his threat Most groups disbanded except John Henry’s Compromise: gave John Henry $$ for gunpowder, but it stayed on boat Significance: VA hadn’t tried to fight Governor w. arms since Bacon’s Rebellion III. All races in VA thought British were going to free the slaves Dunmore never gave freedom, but offered quiet refuge, assembled his own militia 1775 crimes by enslaved workers reached record levels Whites blamed Dunmore 1775 fight at Kemp’s Landing Outnumbered, Dunmore’s army of former slaves beats patriots Patriot Commander captured by his own former slaves Dunmore then proclaimed all slaves who join his regiment as ‘free’ one thousand men, women and children joined Jefferson references in the Dec. of Ind., blaming Dunmore for Revolution William Byrd III and Robert Carter of the Executive Council left loyalists Response to Dunmore, became Patriots Slaves came to Dunmore looking to fight Were allowed to after proving themselves as sailors, soldiers, etc. Black Virginians “helped steer Virginia into the American Revolution” (161) IV. Indians also lead colonies toward Revolution Dunmore organizes trip to convince Indians and Franco-Americans to fight VA They would all meet up in Alexandria, VA and conquer the Patriots John Connolly, sent to talk to Indians was captured in MD Found plan on Connolly, saw they were going to recruit slaves, Indians, and white Virginians, promising land titles Point: Indian and slave rebels fueled the Independence movement in VA Chapter Six: Gentlemen Versus Farmers Smallholders pushed Gentry toward Independence in two ways They could only suppress smallholders with new gov’t, which req. revolution Needed revolution to trade with France Gentry could satisfy rioters Gentry could obtain arms I. Gentry didn’t think they could control blacks until they unified whites Independent companies (county militias) didn’t listen to Patriot leaders (Gentry) 3rd VA Convention, July 1775 Principal goal to restrain militias George Mason suggested combining militias into one army Too expensive Instead hire 1000 full-time soldiers and 8000 minutemen paid during emergencies 1000 positions filled quickly, offered poor farmers wages when they couldn’t trade Couldn’t recruit minutemen (abbreviated as “mm”) MM were subordinated militia – all the danger, none of the independence Also, exempt anyone who paid tax on more than three slaves- rich didn’t fight MM officers paid 11x’s mm wage Militia members wanted equal treatment, not class subjugation MM required 20 days initial training and 24 days training per year No man with a family could leave for that long Only got paid for time on duty, not encampment To fix problem, increased standing army 4x’s Also required men paying taxes on 4+ workers serve time on slave patrol Biggest rift between officers and soldiers was over Patrick Henry Led VA army, was soldiers favorite Continental Congress absorbed most of VA army, but not Henry VA soldiers demanded discharges, furious Eventually men stood down, but it was mutinous Less than a month later, Augusta county group lit ferryhouse where they were stationed New England Restraining Act resulted in shortages First shortage was salt, needed in diet and to preserve meat militias began seizing salt, salt riots Spring of 1776, salt riots huge problem VA gentry believed this could all be settled by trading with France No foreign empire would trade while they were still a colony II. By Nov. 1775, Loudoun County farmers decided to purchase imported salt This was a violation of the Continental Association If it arrived at all, the salt didn’t arrive in time to prevent disturbances Richard Henry Lee, prominent landlord, began demanding payment in gold/silver Cash flow was weak b/c no trade province decided to print money to support war Lee didn’t want paper money which would depreciate rapidly Didn’t expect coin, but “as much paper money as would purchase” equivalent Hard money/paper money common problem Washington paid James Cleveland paper money for working land in Ohio Cleveland became leader of tenant uprising Significance: tenants joined together, did not beg landlords but judged them Rent strike allowed for bigger problems to be addressed 11-1 pay difference between officers and soldiers Blamed Gentry for not ending long war with Dunmore Needed foreign trade Sent patriot troops to quell disturbances Tenants still didn’t pay rent Big picture: For smallholders to survive, they needed to trade with Europe To trade with Europe, Patriots had to first declare war To declare war, Patriots needed munitions from Europe Patriots realized they could sway Gentry To calm masses, must declare Independence Gentry still afraid Independence would lead to anarchy If not all out independence, at least a formal government was needed in VA Part Four: Independence Chapter 7: Spirit of the People Small holders and poor whites pushed Gentry toward Revolution directly and indirectly Indirectly: threat of anarchy, riots, etc. w/o foreign trade Directly: demanded it I. Smallholders believed Independence would give them more power in gov’t. Couldn’t recreate British gov’t. No British-type aristocracy in America Abandoning monarchy and aristocracy was scary to Gentry Freeholders looking for “simple democracy” or “republic” Gentry believed that gave too much power to majority voters Gentry thought it would result in chaos Scary to Gentry because they lacked fixes hierarchies Gentry also thought farmers would use power to seize land of rich Conservative antirepublicans thought Independence meant a gov’t unchecked by Gentry Believed smallholders were motivated primarily by gov’t power smallholders knew the 13 colonies new gov’ts would have to be repubs Thomas Paine’s Common Sense Common people possessed enough sense to govern themselves Equated Independence with republicanism for all Americans II. Smallholders also dissenters from Established Church, 2/3s white Virginians Believed they would have greater freedom after Independence Many leaders of Indep. movement also in movement for religious toleration Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson Smallholders show their support for Independence in spring, 1776 when electing delegates to the last convention, smallholders signed directions for delegates to vote for Independence In Richmond County, seven-time incumbents voted out for “determined men” Landon Carter writes George Washington about Independence “every man would the be able to do as he pleased” (201) Carter shocked at outcome of elections “Hurray for Independency, Sedition, and Confusion” (202) Delegates got the message In may 1776 in Williamsburg delegates instructed VA delegates in Congress to to propose that the 13 colonies declare Independence June 29, 1776 convention adopted new constitution and chose Patrick Henry as VA Gov. Epilogue Virginia always at forefront of the Revolution Thesis of book: Independence movement motivated by more than VA Gentry British Merchants Grassroots Indians, farmers, slaves Thesis proven in documents from House of Burgesses between 1769 and 1775 1769 petition for Kentucky 1772 against the Atlantic Slave trade Address stating free Virginians would absorb British Empire’s American expenses if Parliament granted VA the same commercial rights the other Brits enjoyed Revolution was more than a tax revolt Conflict among social classes Indians played large role Merchants trying to preserve privileges and Indians trying to keep their land influenced the Privy Council to not comply with the burgesses’ two petitions or their 1775 address. VA’s debtor class also influenced the movement 1774 import/export boycotts was pretext However, relief from debts doesn’t explain it all Import/export had unforeseen ramifications Virginians began to divide into two camps: loyalists and Dunmore against Patriots and the House of Bugesses 1775 blacks offer aid to Dunmore for freedom in return When he accepted, he turned many neutral people against him Problems with nonimporations made Gentry realize they needed formal gov’t. in VA Dunmore made reconciliation with Britain impossible Only option was to revolt Farmers recognized that Independence meant more freedom for them Representation Religion Until 1774, Gentry wouldn’t denounce Navigation Acts in public Afraid all Brits would turn against them 1775 when H of B explained problems with Dunmore, blamed slave issue Truth is they weren’t necessarily thrilled with him before that, nor did they take his slave threat seriously (though Holton says earlier that Virginians did love Dunmore) Scholars say Nav. Acts not a problem for colonists in 1763- not true for VA Chesapeake could be entirely sealed off by Navy easily Virginians already taxed by monopoly of their trade Excitement over Dunmore makes more sense considering it happened following slave revolt rumors Views of Jefferson as Herald of Freedom and Indian exterminator are both correct Slaves and Indians didn’t count people who deserved Independence Virginians radical? Domestic manufacturing- had supported for more than a century Tobacco farmers had tried to reduce crop to increase value before Courts had delayed hearings to shield debtors in the past Slaves were just as opportunistic during Bacon’s Rebellion Indians, British Merchants, smallholders, slaves and gentlemen had 2 things in common Dream of freedom Recognition of need to band together for success Relationship between two classes was often influenced by the actions of a third Strategies by grassroots groups often appropriated then toned down by elites How Revolution Affected Each Group Indians Indians were one of worst victims of the revolution Thomas Jefferson advocated “extermination” One of VA’s largest sources of income: sale of Indian land Debtors Closing of courts and outbreak of war cleared their debts 1785 recession, farmers lost their land Got land back by burning their way out of prison, stealing land 1780’s saw huge domestic conflicts Gentlemen Move toward democracy surprisingly limited Gentry chose governor Justices served for life No secret ballot No elimination of property qualification for voting Free blacks and slaves Brits moved some to Nova Scotia, Sierra Leone as free men Between 1782 and 1806 pop. of free blacks doubled in VA Those who weren’t freed were in worse situations than before Made to fight in war, most material deprivation and loss of family Ability to expand meant slaves moved away from families Gentry was the clearest victor Craton, “Jamaica, 1760: Tacky’s Revolt” - slave revolt in Jamaica could have been as widespread as the Haitian revolution - relative calm, large expansion of sugar plantations, distraction of 7 yrs war set stage for revolt - - led by Tacky, spearheaded by Akan-speaking Coromantees goal was to evict whites, divide Jamaica into small states whites thought rebels were working with maroons, but this was not the case; maroons had no real allegiance to whites, though – acted on self interest revolt started on Easter when slaves seized a fort and took weapons attacked plantations and rounded up recruits a small troop tried to attack them but was worn down by guerilla tactics of rebels Lt. Gov. alerted, regulars and militia dispatched Even regulars not prepared for guerilla warfare, tide in favor of rebels early Maroons sent to help, but they were more concerned with bounty than with defeating rebels Word of rebellion spread, slave uprisings occurred all over island Thomas Thistlewood had one of the few remaining firsthand journals of the revolt Thistlewood a slave owner and sees revolt spreading all around him, worried about a revolt from his own slaves but forced to depend on them The 2nd major battle of revolt put rebels on defensive but didn’t end the revolt It was the maroons who defeated Tacky’s main band, killed him, beheaded him and took his head to be displayed (Tacky’s followers stole it to keep it from being displayed) Losing Tacky’s leadership (not the tactics of the whites) led to downfall of rebellion Few rebels surrendered, some returned to masters as if nothing happened Rebellion announced over in Oct. 1761, damages amounted to millions in current dollars Rebellion led to tightening of restrictions on slaves, fortification of island Still some smaller revolts after that in future years As more slaves became creoles and fewer were directly from Africa, African stage of revolt ended Fick, “Slave Resistance” Slaves some times committed suicide to escape slavery (the Ibos in particular) o On slave ships and at the plantations o Sometimes calculated suicides, with the intention of infliction serious economic damage on their masters plantations o Slave women often used abortion and infanticide as a form of resistance Slave revolts another form of resistance o Armed revolts occurred more frequently aboard slave ships than the colonies- but these were often unorganized o Organized revolts forming out of slave society were more dangerous to white planters o Makandal conspiracy in 1757 was only seriously organized slave revolt in Saint Domingue before the revolution in 1791 Marronage o Product of the will of slaves to become free persons- not just horrendous living conditions o Most maroons were men, 15% women o Santo Domingo- maroon colony in Saint Domingue; frequent refuge for the field slave. Bahoruco mountains also frequent destination, birth of maroon colonies. o 1785- French granted independence to Maroons o Marechaussée- created to hunt down and capture fugitive slaves, comprised of affranchise (formers slaves, mulattos) o Black Code 1685- first comprehensive legislation dealing with marronage. Slaves of different plantations were forbidden to assemble for any reason, to carry any sort of weapon without pass from master, harsh punishments for fugitive slaves o Predominately involved African born, non- creole slaves o Colonial born slaves used familiarity with plantation life, high positions, ability to read or write, and other tricks to gain freedom Once slaves got far enough away from plantation, virtually impossible to track down. In a few years, they would be accepted as free o Marronage not exclusive to Saint Domingue- found in other colonies. But in other colonies, began to be replaced more frequently by slave revolts. Persisted in Saint Domingue. o Existence of maroons offered an alternative to slaves- provided hope. Disrupted the order of slave plantations. o Maroons were forbidden from helping slaves escape however- works both ways. o Maroons not distinctly separate from slave system- very much an integral part o Voodoo- form of cultural protest against slavery; mode of resistance. Preserved African culture. Slave leaders often emerged from this tradition. Facilitated secret meetings, provided a linkage system and network of slaves o Congolese- predominant nation among maroons o Francois Makandal- revolutionary voodoo maroon leader. Head of vast, organized slave revolt in Saint Domingue in the 1750’s. Goal was to overthrow white regime. Eventually unsuccessful. o Slaves used poison to kill and threaten white plantation owners Created a state of paranoia in the white planter society Incentive to kill masters for economic reasons (poisoning of other slaves), as well as opportunity to become free. o Makandal’s conspiracy was a premature attempt at revolution Part of a larger epidemic o More outright forms of revolt, as opposed to poison and voodoo began to gradually prevail. o The French revolution would finally provide the opportunity for the major revolt. Maier, “The Stamp Act Riots and Ordered Resistance” Maier, “The Making of an American Revolution, 1772-1776” - Starting in 1772, colonists were still “emotionally and intellectually unprepared for war and a potential withdrawal from the empire” o Hope that independence could be averted; “wait and see” game with British Many not ready for use of force; preferred economic coercion (nonimportation/exportation) o Constant, strategic communication between colonists and their supporters in the UK o Colonists were molding a British revolution; not yet an American one - Colonists had hope for Lord Dartmouth (new Sec of State for American affairs); then new parliament; then the king (George III); then British people. All fail to support the colonists. - Intolerable Acts – 1774 o Close port of Boston o Disallow trying of British officials in American courts o Showed the King was despotic too, for those who thought just parliament was bad - The British people vis a vis the colonists o No possibility of insurrection in Britain o Colonists previously hated parliament and king; now begin to hate the people o Changes the nature of rebellion; colonists hate all things British made way for American national identity - America emerges from Revolution as… o “Noble” – the last bastion of true freedom o Idea that if you’re part of the British Empire, you are enslaved Armitage, “The Declaration of Independence and International Law” This essay contains four main parts. The first is where he examines what the declaration actually was intended to do. The second is an examination of the early reaction to the declaration in Europe. The third part examines the context of its creation and how shifts in thinking about natural law and positive law were helping to shape notions of international law. Finally he examines how the declaration was not a document regarding the ideal relationship between individuals and government but rather autonomy of the American colonies. He argues that the declaration has two premises and two proofs. The first premise is the conditions that are necessary for separation must be declared. The second is certain violations of principle justify separation. The first proof is evidence of such violations. The second is that the government has not redressed these violations. He argues that the second premise and its discussion of inalienable truths is most studied and referred to but is in fact the minor premise. He argues that the necessity of a declaration was due to international and diplomatic factor. And that the purpose of the declaration was not so much a discussion of rights but an attempt to establish America as a state in order to make allegiances with European powers more legitimate. He supports this notion by saying that European powers were reluctant to align themselves with people who still considered them to be British subjects. He cites revolutionary thinkers such as Thomas Paine desire for a declaration of independence in order to allow commercial and political alliances with foreign nations. He also stresses the delegates desire to adhere to the Law of Nations as a reason that the declaration was intended primarily for a foreign audience. However the author points out how the declaration upon its publication in Europe was met with either anger as it did in Britain or silence as it did in continental Europe. British response was to insist that declaration did not make the American Colonies a state and that its inhabitants were subjects engaged in rebellion. He also argues that the declaration was a compromise of the debate between natural and positive law. Natural law being god given and consisting of certain rights. While positive law consisted of institutions of government that intended to maintain law and protect rights. The emphasis on inalienable rights and Natural Law espoused in the Declaration was in decline in Europe during this period. But the declaration also declares America’s right to participate in the positivist international law and other institutions of states. Finally he argues that the American declaration of independence was unique in its purpose was to request a place in the international order. Bailyn, To Begin the World Anew The Founding Fathers’ main concern was that their plan would fail. The circumstances that accounted for their creative imagination was their position on the outskirts of society. Bailyn compares them socially to the outsiders of metropolitan art; they were provincial. Compared to the British aristocracy, the American founding fathers were much less wealthy and much less academically stimulated. They were less interested in the frills of the rich life and more in the practicality of running the colonies. *criticism: Bailyn does not question the lack of money here. He attributes it to different values, but it must be noted that a) in a society where wealth is based on years of establishment of property, the colonies were too new to have much emphasis on tradition. And b)the outcasts of British society were sent to America and to the colonies in general. Though many had been religiously persecuted, their predecessors had not chosen originally to go there because of different intellectual values. He finally emphasizes that the founding fathers believed strongly in the unique American moral standings of politics. The British government was renowned for its corrupt practices. Chapter 2 – Jefferson and the Ambiguities of Freedom Jefferson’s reputation: Jefferson was both vilified and glorified even in his own time. Bailyn quotes John, John Quincy, and Henry Adams in their criticism of Jefferson over three generations. Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence. He is possibly most well-known for his inconsistencies: He called for rebellion against oppressive conditions, but declined to assist the Haitians in their revolution. (Again, to criticize Bailyn: why would Jefferson incite slave rebellion when American colonists themselves were in a precarious position concerning slavery?) He hated slavery, but only freed a few slaves in his will and at first opposed the expansion of slavery but then allowed it into the ‘Old Northwest’ and in Missouri. Bailyn cites that he is often criticized for believing that all men are created equal, but did not do much in the cessation of slavery. *Again, a critical look. There are 2 possibilities to consider: Jefferson could have been ahead of his times and really did believe in the equality of all men, but knew that politically he could not push for independence and simultaneously the emancipation of slaves and be taken seriously by his peers; or, he was simply a man of his times in the regard that he, like everyone else, did believe that all men were equal, only that slaves were not men. At first he advocated a completely free press, but when he realized that the press could promulgate its own falsehoods, he advocated for censuring the press. At first he believed that the Constitution would create something like a monarchy, i.e. if the president could be re-elected then he would never be replaced, but was eventually convinced by Madison that it would indeed secure the rights of the people. Was initially staunchly opposed to party politics, but could find no way around them but to have a party of his own. Despite these inconsistencies (sorry to inject my opinion so much, but these ‘inconsistencies’ are what I believe leadership and political maneuvering consist of. Changing one’s mind and ADAPting are necessary to one’s political and personal survival.), he was lauded for continually fighting against poverty, and most importantly, he was in constant fear that the revolution would fail and he did everything in his power to keep it from doing so. Mackesy – “The World War, 1778” Ch 7 - “Morrow of Saratoga” - Saratoga as THE turning point of the Revolutionary War - 2 Commanders-in-Chief for British resign: Gen. Carleton and Gen. Howe - Carleton resigns after heated disagreements with Germain - Howe also had personal disagreements with Germain - Howe resigned because of Saratoga defeat, he “lost the confidence of his best officers” - Burgoyne sends a letter that makes everyone in government question the war, King wants an inquiry but nothing happens - Lord North hates the war, his cabinet becomes ineffective Right after loss at Saratoga, hopes of a decisive British victory ended Hope that war weariness would force patriots to settle New plan by cabinet: to blockade US coast, back off of land war Orders sent to Clinton to withdraw from Philly, prepare to invade GA and SC the next yr - Some in England didn’t want to re-conquer N. England - belief that NE would buy British goods anyway, so give up NE: Hudson River should be the boundary of the empire in north - South had slave problems, more loyalists, more dependence on British markets - British sent a secret envoy to meet with the Americans, Americans used this to play off French and encourage them to ally themselves with US Ch 8 - “The Naval Mobilisation” - Middleton as Lord Sandwich’s main critic - Naval Board as an inflexible bureaucratic entity - British navy a leftover from 7 years war, falling apart under Sandwich - British tried to store up timber and build more stockyards, but fell behind and had low quality timber - Lord North wanted to balance budget, so it came out of the naval budget - France strengthening its navy, British unable to modernize with Revolution going on - Sandwich thought that British would have to fight a defensive naval war because of the substandard navy - Eventually, government did agree to increase number of ships - Sandwich says that he will resign if British navy cannot hang with French navy - French could mobilize sailors much faster than British - Many sailors died because of disease; new health measures lessened sailor deaths Ch 9 - “War Plans and Preparation” - Lord Amherst becomes a Commander in Chief - The W. Indies were viewed as far more important than mainland colonies – economically and strategically - Offensively attacking the French West Indies was the best defense (as opposed to scattering units around the British Caribbean) - Peace Commission ordered to make sweeping offers of conciliation to Congress to get them out of the war - Commissioners sail for America, but don’t know that the British gave up Philly and NYC in the meantime, angered commissioners Ch 10 - “The Command of the Seas” - France decided against invading British mainland directly for fear of international repercussions - Decided to fight them abroad, take valuable territories - British considered a blockade of French coast but decided against it (not enough ships) - Appearance that the British would have to engage French in decisive naval battle - British decide to send a naval fleet to America to fight French - Keppel appointed head of the Channel Fleet - Keppel comes in to speak with leaders, immediately ordered back out to sea to defend channel - Channel Fleet fight French fleet in English Channel, a draw but kept French from invading British isles Ch 11 – “Crisis in America” - Howe refused to attack Washington in Valley Forge - Howe replaced by Henry Clinton (who would be blamed for losing the American campaign) - Large amt of Clinton’s troops sent away to W. Indies, Clinton had to leave Philly - After a stalemate, fighting in the northern theater would end - Peace Commission makes offers of everything short of independence, America refuses - Clinton believed Canadian holdings were safe, told to hold NYC - British suffered from a lack of provisions, food Ch 12 – “The Southern Offensives” - scattered nature of islands made them difficult to defend; navy the primary defensive force - planters didn’t want to provide for their own defense (a direct contradiction to O’Shaughnessy) - British take offensive in naval defense of islands, French lose a chance to attack and destroy a weak British fleet - Florida is an ignored front that all powers saw as a prize - Pushing through Florida in a campaign to take GA - The plan to seize GA was the beginning of the non-defensive British campaign in Southern America Lewis, “’Of Every Age Sex & Condition’: The Representation of Women in the Constitution” Gender-Neutral language of the Constitution – To encompass women or not? Believes it does include women, although the role set out for them is different than the roles set aside for most men Pennsylvania’s James Wilson, Articles of Confederation, original wording for how representation in the Lower House (later House of Representatives) would be “in proportion to the whole number of white and other free Citizens and inhabitants of every age, sex & condition including those bound to servitude for a term of years and 3/5 of all other persons not comprehended in the foregoing description, except Indians not paying taxes, in each state” Committee of Style compressed Wilson’s words “of every age, sex & condition” to “free persons” … this would make one assume they thought the meaning had not changed. Many other revisions continued to use “free persons” Significant, since none of the new sate constitutions enacted at the time numbered women and children But at the time there is no record of Wilson’s additional language about sex being contested, it is not clear what he and the other delegates intended. At the same time, representation about slavery was being debated at the Convention – the issue of slavery was much more highly contested Wilson’s 3/5s idea, or that property was the way to measure representation Essentially, the liberals of the time considered the new nation in expansive terms saying that every free person who inhabited was in fact a citizen, deserving protection and representation in government. In this context, women, who were explicitly represented but who were just as explicitly not permitted to represent themselves became sort of a touchstone of the modern, liberal state. By construing women as interested citizens incapable of representing themselves, liberalism provided a justification for the state: protecting those who could not protect themselves. Wilson’s theory set out in his “Lectures on Law” – believed “Government was instituted for the happiness of society” and explained that women were there to help form the domestic society “the better part” and not the government. – that was too masculine and couldn’t be attempted by women without jeopardizing their femininity – which was important for society. Apparently women were seen as the very object of government – which explains why they would need representation, although wouldn’t have any place within the government itself due to their femininity The legal existence of the wife is consolidated into that of the husband. If peace and harmony were to be found it would be within marriage – therefore, the idea that two persons would function as one became the cornerstone of society However, the creators of new national and state governments barely discussed the issue of female citizenship – even in cases like Wilson’s, where they tried to expand the sphere of women’s civil liberties, the Framers offered very little guidance about how their rights should be defined or enforced. This worked for a while, until the similarity to their situation with free blacks became a problem, further defining the inequalities of the free blacks. Essentially, female citizenship had been defined in relationship to that of blacks, both slave and free Started off constituting society, enjoying its rights and protection – gradually however, women came to stand for those who were members of a society who did not enjoy political rights while the free black population represented the reverse of that. This situation widened the gap that had been closing between politics and society Lewis leaves you with the statement that gender had been used to construct the political and social practices of race, and race to construct the practices of gender… the fleeting vision of a wide open public sphere open to “persons of every age, sex, and condition” faded, leaving barely a trace Finkelman, “Slavery and the Constitutional Convention: Making a Covenant with Death” - The debate over the Constitution and its inclusion of slavery was more about North and South power struggles and maintaining a union than about the principle of slavery. The North was intent upon maintaining a Union and offered many proslavery concessions. morals sacrificed for the sake of maintaining that union – even anti-slavery northerners were willing to allow the continuation of slavery - The three-fifths clause in Article 1 Section 2, counted slaves as three-fifths of a person in determining house representation. – Counting slaves as zero would have better for the slaves and for the north (voting power) – The debate was highly controversial and was not completely resolved for months. - There are five places in the Constitution that, Finkelman argues "explicitly sanction" slavery, even though the word slave is only used once in the document (in a later amendment abolishing slavery) – three-fifths – slave importation clause – capitation (taxes had to take into account slaves as three-fifths) – fugitive slave clause, and the prohibition of any amendment of the slave – importation capitation clause before 1808. Implicit References to slavery can be found throughout the document “Insurrection Clause”: Could be about Shea’s rebellion, which was happening at the same time as the Constitutional Convention 3/5 clause: also determines representation for the electoral college, which means that whites in slave states have heightened power in presidential elections 75% of slaves needed to ratify the constitution – slave states could withhold their approval and hold a “perpetual veto” against new clauses (S. Carolina, Georgia) - **IMPORTANT: Know that the three fifths clause was in article 1, section two of the constitution. My tf made sure to stress this in class when we went over this reading. ** Merrell, “Declarations of Independence: Indian-White Relations in the New Nation” While all of America cheered after Great Britain surrendered, the Indians were not even mentioned in the peace treaty that ceded all of their land to the conquerors. Many had fought for the British during the war lured by gifts and promises of protection – the victors were unable to forget this after the war was over These feelings ran so deep that it didn’t even matter what side the Indians had fought on. Some treaties were thrown together, other states like Georgia, just took Indian land saying it was compensations for the Indians sins They said that virtue of the Treaty of Paris they owned all land east of the Mississippi since Indians had been a British Ally Informal war – more than a hatred of Indians and a desire for revenge but also a desire to continue defeating these native nations just because they could – after all, they had just defeated the most powerful nation on earth However, the Indians refused to just surrender or join the new American culture or society – proved to be a more difficult adversary, even using allies like the Spanish in Florida and the British in Canada For a long while, America’s claim to their land was in paper only US tried a different approach – give them the “blessings of civilization” – basically conversion rather than coercion Eventually, a combination of all the different tactics and the dislocation of so many of them paid off for the Americans and caused a huge price for the Indians Hunting songs became no longer meaningful for the Cherokee, the tribal elders began to feel obsolete, a vast knowledge of ancient lore seemed irrelevant to future generations, yearly ceremonies fell from 6 to 2, and eve those were more like going through the motions, not a solemn, in the Six Nations, suicide rates skyrocketed, drunkenness was an epidemic Made worse for the Indians because many began to embrace white ways to combat despair Several rallies were made by various tribes who came together around certain prophets who gave them new hope, vigor, and hate, although ultimately these resurgent where stopped as well the more civilization grew and spread Luckily, the Indians avoided extinction altogether, as the American could never bring themselves to completely follow through with it – in fact, many were ashamed with their past actions This window allowed for those few who remained to actually file legal action based upon our own declaration of independence and constitution – their sheer determinations to save their heritage and remain “Indians Still” could be considered a triumph with all that occurred between the Treaty of Paris and The Trail of Tears O’Shaughnessy, An Empire Divided Preface - - book is political in focus has three main goals: o concerned with the reaction of the British West Indies to the American Revolution and aims to explain why the island colonies did not support the mainland revolt o the influence of the Islands on British colonial policy towards North America and the role the Islands played in events that caused the American Revolution. Also, this book aims to make more explicit their important in military affairs during the Revolutionary War o implications of division of British America for the West Indies Why didn’t the Islands revolt? o Planter absenteeism o Deeper economic and cultural links with Britain o Greater strategic vulnerability (reliance on British military) o Greater slave population numerically - the Islands white colonist were more loyal to the British Empire because of fundamental differences between the islands and the mainland colonies not because of a threat from military coercion or the physical impracticality of revolt Part I Chapter One: British Sojourners - - - (p4) British West Indian colonists had no nationalistic ties to the West Indies, they remained nationalistic to Britain o had strong cultural ties to Britain that restrained the formation of a nationalistic Creole consciousness o (p5-6) planters were absent, temporary residents. As a result, there was no infrastructure, schools, good architecture etc. (p7) Pitman’s theory: Whites in the BWI were from a capitalist class, connected to landed gentry, Anglicans, agreed with rural aristocracy whereas N. American whites were nonconformist, with democratic and republican ideas and this is why the BWI were more loyal to the British Empire O’Shaughnessy: Pitman wrong. The Chesapeake settlers were different from New England settlers and very similar to the BWI colonists. There were other factors involved: o High mortality rates among Whites (malaria and yellow fever prevalent), 1/3 of whites died within their first 3 years on the islands o Blacks less susceptible to certain diseases o (p8-9) Many more Blacks than Whites From 1673 – 1774: 22:1 black:white ratio Only South Carolina had about same proportions o Fear of Black rebellions increased need for British military assistance in the BWI. (p31) Threat from neighboring European powers also increased need for British military assistance. o (p9-10) Because of large Black population, more contact between Whites and Blacks. Therefore, BWI whites felt need to identify more strongly with Britain in order to remove themselves from “blackness”. o (p10-11) Planters made more money on the islands than the mainland which made it possible for them to live in Britain, educate their children there etc. Primogeniture (having oldest son inherent an entire estate as opposed to splitting it up amongst heirs) also made it easier for BWI colonists to maintain large amounts of money, and therefore live and be educated in Britain. A British education became necessary for professional work in the West Indies. (p20) between 1698-1752 twice as many BWI kids were in school in Britain than N. American kids. (p21) no colleges in the BWI, 9 colleges in the 13 colonies o (p15) BWI has most powerful colonial lobby in London all these factors explain BWI loyalty to Britain Chapter Two: Black Majorities - - BWI: welcomed British army because feared slave revolt N. America: resented British military presence because thought was a conspiracy (p36) BWI colonists had legitimate fear of slave revolts and had greater occurrence of revolts because: o More slaves and absentee planters in BWI than in NA o More African-born slaves in BWI than in NA o (p41-43) Maroon communities (communities of freed/runaway slaves) o (p38) Example: Jamaica revolts in 1760s The fear of slave revolts brought BWI colonists closer to British by making them rely on British military protection o (p43) Before 1730s, didn’t want Br. Army but the growing maroon communities and slave revolts created the need o Barbados was under special circumstances because it had a lower black/white ratio (4:1) and had a local army but even they requested British assistance in 1816 after several slave revolts. Chapter 3: The Sugar Islands - - - Sugar exportation key to islands’ economy BWI relied on Britain for sugar exportation o BWI sugar more expensive than French West Indies’ sugar so no one else wants to but BWI sugar. To help, Britain makes it illegal for Britain and it’s colonies to buy French sugar o American colonies defy law and but French sugar anyway o (p65) increases tension between islands and mainland leading to (p63) Molasses Act of 1733 and stricter enforcement of trade laws o (p64, 67) Also, Sugar Act in 1764 and Free Port Act increases tension (p69, 71) Only time BWI intervene in NA/British dispute is when it’s in their own self-interest o BWI dependent on NA food imports and don’t want NA to separate from Britain cause would loose their source of food Sugar made BWI more dependent on Britain while it forced mainland colonies away from Britain Part II Chapter Four: Sons of Liberty - (p81) In the 1760s, the BWI and NA diverge significantly in their response to British legislation (p82) Stamp Act in 1765, then again in 1766 followed by Declaratory Act o (p85) affected BWI more but N. Americans objected more o only Islands to resist the Stamp Acts were the Leeward Islands who were also the most dependent on N. American food imports - - Why did the BWI object less than the NAs? o Difference between BWI and NA reactions: BWI much more focused on impracticality of Stamp Act while NA challenged constitutionality of Acts. (p102-3) BWI didn’t even realize that they had a constitutional right to cettain things. o (p106-7) In general, the BWI were less effected by imperial rule because they were given preferential treatment Slaves mounted the fiercest resistance in the BWI during the 1760s-70s. Chapter Five: Winning the Initiative - - - (p109) All the British colonies formed assemblies which challenged British Imperial rule but in different ways: o prerogative (in the case of BWI) vs. revolutionary struggle and liberty (in NA) (p114-5) Jamaican assembly openly confronted the Imperial government and opposed wishes of king and won But, BWI assemblies similar to early Britain in 1600s in that they were not trying to start a revolution, just trying to gain what was rightfully theirs while maintaining respect for Imperial authority (p128) BWI were not supportive of legislation leading to revolution (p131) BWI didn’t contend the right of the Parliament while NA claimed to be independent of the Parliament (p133) In the BWI, lots of disenfranchisement. Only 7% of population represented in assemblies. Assemblies = oligarchy.