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ALLIANCES
The Three Emperors League & Dual Alliance
Bismark (of Germany) began by negotiating, in 1873, the Three Emperors League, which tied Germany, AustriaHungary and Russia to each other's aid in time of war. This however only lasted until Russia's withdrawal five
years later in 1878, leaving Bismarck with a new Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879.
This latter treaty promised aid to each other in the event of an attack by Russia, or if Russia aided another power
at war with either Germany or Austria-Hungary. Should either nation be attacked by another power, e.g. France,
they were to remain - at the very least - benevolently neutral.
This alliance, unlike others, endured until war in 1914. It was this clause that Austria-Hungary invoked in calling
Germany to her aid against Russian support for Serbia (who in turn was protected by treaty with Russia).
The Triple Alliance
Two years after Germany and Austria-Hungary concluded their agreement, Italy was brought into the fold with the
signing of the Triple Alliance in 1881. Under the provisions of this treaty, Germany and Austria-Hungary promised
to assist Italy if she were attacked by France, and vice versa: Italy was bound to lend aid to Germany or AustriaHungary if France declared war against either.
Additionally, should any signatory find itself at war with two powers (or more), the other two were to provide
military assistance. Finally, should any of the three determine to launch a 'preventative' war (a euphemism if ever
there was one), the others would remain neutral.
One of the chief aims of the Triple Alliance was to prevent Italy from declaring war against Austria-Hungary,
towards whom the Italians were in dispute over territorial matters.
Franco-Russian Agreements
The year after the Reinsurance Treaty lapsed Russia allied itself with France. Both powers agreed to consult with
the other should either find itself at war with any other nation, or if indeed the stability of Europe was threatened.
This rather loosely worded agreement was solidified in 1892 with the Franco-Russian Military Convention, aimed
specifically at counteracting the potential threat posed by the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Italy.
In short, should France or Russia be attacked by one of the Triple Alliance signatories - or even should a Triple
Alliance power mobilize against either (where to mobilize meant simply placing a nation on a war footing
preparatory to the declaration of hostilities), the other power would provide military assistance.
Cordial Agreements: Britain, France, and Russia
Two years later Britain signed the Entente Cordiale with France. This 1904 agreement finally resolved numerous
leftover colonial squabbles. More significantly, although it did not commit either to the other's military aid in time
of war, it did offer closer diplomatic co-operation generally.
Three years on, in 1907, Russia formed what became known as the Triple Entente (which lasted until World War
One) by signing an agreement with Britain, the Anglo-Russian Entente.
Together the two agreements formed the three-fold alliance that lasted and effectively bound each to the other
right up till the outbreak of world war just seven years later.
Again, although the two Entente agreements were not militarily binding in any way, they did place a "moral
obligation" upon the signatories to aid each other in time of war.
It was chiefly this moral obligation that drew Britain into the war in defense of France, although the British pretext
was actually the terms of the largely forgotten 1839 Treaty of London that committed the British to defend
Belgian neutrality (discarded by the Germans as "a scrap of paper" in 1914, when they asked Britain to ignore it).
In 1912 Britain and France did however conclude a military agreement, the Anglo-French Naval Convention, which
promised British protection of France's coastline from German naval attack, and French defense of the Suez Canal.
IMPERIALISM
Another factor which contributed to the increase in rivalry in Europe was imperialism. Great Britain,
Germany and France needed foreign markets after the increase in manufacturing caused by the
Industrial Revolution. These countries competed for economic expansion in Africa. Although Britain and
France resolved their differences in Africa, several crises foreshadowing the war involved the clash of
Germany against Britain and France in North Africa. In the Middle East, the crumbling Ottoman Empire
was alluring to Austria-Hungary, the Balkans and Russia.
Crises in Africa
The friction of an armed and divided Europe escalated into several crises in Morocco and the Balkans
which nearly ended in war. In 1905, Germany announced its support of independence for Morocco, the
African colony which Britain had given France in 1904. The British defended the French, and war was
avoided by an international conference in Algeciras in 1906 which allowed France to make Morocco a
French protectorate.
Morocco II
A second Moroccan crisis occurred in 1911 when Germany sent a warship to Agadir in protest of French
supremacy in Morocco, claiming the French had violated the agreement at Algeciras. Britain again rose
to France's defense and gave the Germans stern warnings. Germany agreed to allow France a free hand
in Morocco in exchange for part of the French Congo. In the Balkan Wars of 1912-13, the Balkan States
drove the Turks back to Constantinople and fought among themselves over territory. Tensions between
Serbia and Austria-Hungary increased when Austria-Hungary forced Serbia to abandon some of its gains.
Bosnian Crisis of 1908
Another conflict was incited by the Austria-Hungarian annexation of the former Turkish province of
Bosnia in 1908. The Greater Serbian movement had as an object the acquisition of Slavic Bosnia, so
Serbia threatened war on Austria-Hungary. Russia had pledged their support to Serbia, so they began to
mobilize, which caused Germany, allied with Austria-Hungary, to threaten war on Russia. The beginning
of World War I was postponed when Russia backed down, but relations between Austria- Hungary and
Serbia were greatly strained.
MILITARISM
Arms Race
The menace of the hostile division led to an arms race, another cause of World War I. Acknowledging
that Germany was the leader in military organization and efficiency, the great powers of Europe copied
the universal conscription, large reserves and detailed planning of the Prussian system. Technological
and organizational developments led to the formation of general staffs with precise plans for
mobilization and attack that often could not be reversed once they were begun. The German von
Schlieffen Plan to attack France before Russia in the event of war with Russia was one such complicated
plan that drew more countries into war than necessary.
Armies and navies were greatly expanded. The standing armies of France and Germany doubled in size
between 1870 and 1914. Naval expansion was also extremely competitive, particularly between
Germany and Great Britain. By 1889, the British had established the principle that in order to maintain
naval superiority in the event of war they would have to have a navy two and a half times as large as the
second-largest navy. This motivated the British to launch the Dreadnought, invented by Admiral Sir John
Fisher, in 1906. The Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 had demonstrated how effective these
battleships were. As Britain increased their output of battleships, Germany correspondingly stepped up
their naval production, including the Dreadnought. Although efforts for worldwide disarmament were
made at the Hague Conferences of 1899 and 1907, international rivalry caused the arms race to continue
to feed on itself.
Comparative figures on army increase, 1870-1914:
1870
1914
Russia
700,000 1,300,000
France
380,000
846,000
Germany
403,000
812,000
Austria-Hungary 247,000
424,000
Britain
302,000
381,000
Italy
334,000
305,000
Japan
70,000
250,000
U.S.A.
37,000
98,000
Kaiser Wilhelm II
In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm II became ruler of Germany. Within two years, he forced Bismark to resign as he
did not want to share power with anyone. Besides wanting to assert his own power, the new Kaiser was
eager to show the world just how mighty Germany had become. The army was his greatest pride. “I and
the army were born for one another,” he declared after taking power.
Wilhelm, envious of Britain’s large empire and mighty navy, decided to challenge Britain. During the
1890’s, Germany built its own small colonial empire. At the same time, Wilhelm started a tremendous
shipbuilding program in an effort to make the German navy equal to Britain’s. Alarmed, Britain began to
enlarge its own fleet.
NATIONALISM
Unifications of Germany and Italy
In the years that followed the Congress of Vienna, conflicts began springing up all over Europe between those who
cried out for change, and those who resisted it. By the mid-1800s, nationalism had become an evident force. A
wave of unrest was seen across the continent in the Revolution of 1848. The 1860s and early 1870s saw two great
changes to the map: the unification of Italy and the unification of Germany. These two nations were formed on
the basis of nationalism. German Unification was brought about by Prussia's "Iron Chancellor", Otto von Bismarck,
through a series of wars from 1864–1871. The addition of two great powers in Europe fundamentally altered the
balance of power.
The Franco-Prussian War
This war took place in 1870-1871 between France and the German states (Prussia). The underlying causes of the
conflict were the determination of the Prussian statesman, Prince Otto von Bismarck to unify Germany under
Prussian control and, as a step toward this goal, to eliminate French influence over Germany. The Treaty of
Frankfurt, signed on May 10, 1871, ended the war between France and Germany, with France being the loser. The
treaty provided that the French province of Alsace (excepting Belfort) and part of Lorraine, including Metz, were to
be ceded to the German Empire, and that France was to pay a war indemnity of 5 billion gold francs ($1 billion),
submitting to occupation by German troops until the amount was rendered in full.
Almost immediately following the defeat of France by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, together
with the humiliating annexation by the newly unified Germany of the coal-rich territories of Alsace and Lorraine,
the French government and military alike were united in thirsting for revenge.
The Crisis in the Balkans (assassination of Ferdinand)
Nationalism posed a problem for Austria-Hungary and the Balkans, areas comprised of many conflicting national
groups. The Ottoman empire was in decline and many groups in the Balkans struggled for their independence
from this declining empire. The people of Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, Romania, and Serbia had already formed
new nations.
Many other nationalistic groups longed to extend their borders. Serbia hoped to extend their borders to include
all Slavs on the Baltic peninsula, including the area that was annexed by Austria. The Black Hand was one such
group who was working to undermine Austria’s authority and promote a pan-Slavic region. Gavrilo Princip was
part of this group and assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in 1914.
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese war was an armed conflict between Russia and Japan in 1904-5. The cause of the war was
that Russian expansion in eastern Asia ran challenged Japans plans in the region. Japan had agreed to recognize
Russia’s rights in Manchuria if Russia agreed to stay out of Korea—but the Russians refused, which led to war.
Japan won brutal land and sea battles and defeated the Russians. The end result was that Japan was given the
captured territories and Russia was forced to withdraw from Manchuria and stay out of Korea. Russia’s pride was
wounded from loss to Japan.