Download Tuskegee Airmen

Tuskegee Airmen
Under a title of both honor and ostracism, the Tuskegee Airmen were African-American Air Corps officers
who trained at the Tuskegee Army Airfield in Alabama, the only training facility for basic and advanced flight
training open to black pilots during World War II. The Airmen successfully fought as a segregated unit with
the U.S. Army Air Force during the war and completed more than 1,500 missions. Today, they are
remembered as heroes who helped to integrate the American armed forces during and after World War II.
Before 1954, African-American officers and enlisted men fought in segregated units. Only the army allowed
black men to serve in a combat role; the U.S. Navy allowed African Americans to serve as stewards and cooks;
neither the U. S. Marines Corps nor the U.S. Air Force allowed African Americans to enlist. It was not until
1939 that congressional legislation mandated the admittance of African Americans to the training facilities of
the Civil Aeronautics Authority, which used flying equipment provided by the Air Corps. Yet the Corps
refused the entrance of African Americans in any capacity until 1940. Citing a common rationale for keeping
them out, Gen. Henry Arnold argued that "Negro pilots cannot be used in our present Air Force, since this
would result in having Negro officers over white enlisted men." Arnold caved in to pressure in December
1940, when he unveiled an experimental program to recruit 500 African-American men, 10% of whom would
be given commissions (but not all as pilots). To maintain Southern support of the war effort and to appease the
leading figures in the armed forces, Arnold ordered that African-American air cadets be segregated from white
officers and enlisted men.
Segregation and discrimination plagued the program. Originally located at an air base outside of Chicago, the
program's African-American flyers and ground crew were eventually moved to an airfield operated by the
Civil Aeronautics Authority at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, the all-black school founded by Booker T.
Washington in the late 19th century. This move angered many leading African-American men and women who
felt the stated reason for the move, the high price of land near Chicago, masked an ulterior motive: legitimizing
the segregated nature of the unit by placing it in the South, where segregation was reinforced by law. But like
the majority of African-American civil rights leaders at the time, vocal critics accepted that a segregated unit
was better than none.
The Tuskegee Airmen dealt daily with the indignities associated with segregated military life. They were not
allowed to associate with whites, even other officers. African Americans from Tuskegee could not stay
overnight at the nearby Maxwell Field, the location of the visiting officers' quarters. They also could not use
the officers' club. This treatment alienated most of the African-American airmen, who dubbed themselves the
Lonely Eagles. Also, black pilots could only fight with black units, so the combat role open to the Tuskegee
airmen was limited. The absence of useful work was acute, since black fighting units could only absorb a finite
number of black pilots. Segregation created the ridiculous situation of over-qualified black airmen serving as
"assistant to the assistant supply officer" and "assistant area beautification officer." Many good AfricanAmerican pilots failed to see combat as a result.
Despite segregation, the Tuskegee Airmen convinced their white military superiors that they could play an
effective combat role. By the end of the war, 926 African-American pilots had been trained. Out of nearly
1,000 black airmen, 450 black fighter pilots fought over the skies of North Africa, Sicily, and Europe. They
flew P-40, P-39, P-47, and P-51 aircraft in 15,500 sorties and finished 1,578 missions with the U.S. Army Air
Force. Sixty-six pilots were killed in combat, and 32 were shot down and captured. The first African-American
aviation unit to fly in battle was the 99th Pursuit Squadron, led by Lt. Col. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. The 99th
developed into a superior-fighting unit despite its hurried training.
As African-American pilots became more common to both Allied and Axis powers, nicknames formed.
Germans called the Tuskegee Airmen the Schwartze Vogelmenschen (Black Birdmen), while American
bomber crews referred to them as the "Black Redtail Angels" due to the red paint on the aircraft tails
designating Tuskegee. The Tuskegee Airmen's reputation for not losing many bombers was known throughout
the American armed forces during World War II.
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Stemming from his command of a larger African-American unit, the 33rd Fighter Group, Davis became the
leading figure associated with the Tuskegee Airmen following the war. He eventually climbed to the rank of
lieutenant general, the first African American to achieve three stars. Another leading figure was Lt. Col. Noel
Parrish, a white officer who took over leadership at Tuskegee in 1942. Profoundly influenced by the efforts
and troubles of the Tuskegee Airmen, Parrish spearheaded the desegregation of the air force in the wake of
World War II.
Today, four memorials are scattered across the nation that call attention to the relatively unknown history of
the Tuskegee Airmen and their military accomplishments. A traveling exhibit also records the living history of
these courageous men. Furthermore, there are several active chapters of the Tuskegee Airmen, a non-profit
organization that sponsors scholarships for youth interested in studying math and science.
Navajo Code Talkers
Navajo Code Talkers was a special program of the U.S. Marine Corps in World War II, when Navajos were
used to develop and implement one of the few unbroken codes in history. There was some historical precedent
for the use of Native Americans speaking their language as a code in modern combat. Both the Canadian and
U.S. armies had limited success with such efforts in World War I, most notably the U.S. experiment with the
Choctaws of Company D, 141st Infantry. One dilemma was that Native American languages lacked such
combat-specific words as machine gun or grenade.
Philip Johnston, the son of missionaries, grew up speaking Navajo and conceived an unbreakable military code
based upon it. Due to the tonal nature of Navajo speech, words changed meaning based upon pitch and
inflection. The language was largely unwritten and not a subject of linguistic study. Johnston, a civil engineer
in Los Angeles, approached Maj. Gen. Clayton B. Vogel of the Marine Corps with his idea and arranged a
demonstration. Impressed, Vogel requested authorization to recruit 200 Navajos for code duty. Washington
granted permission for 30 men to begin a pilot program.
In April 1942, the new 382 Platoon began regular basic training at Camp Elliot, California. Their training
differed in one respect from that of other marines. They had to create a new military code. This was
complicated by the fact that any code had to account for the different dialects on the Navajo reservation.
Furthermore, the code had to be memorized, since nothing could be written down for fear of capture. Using the
familiar, the Navajos based the code on nature as a reference. Birds indicated planes, a buzzard was a bomber,
and fish denoted types of ships.
Descriptive words particular to Navajo life described other military details. The commanding officer became
war chief, and a fortification was a cliff dwelling. Countries and leaders were christened by physical
characteristics. Africa was "Blackie," the United States was "Our Mother," Adolf Hitler became "Mustache
Smeller," and Benito Mussolini was "Big Gourd Chin." The originators also made up their own expressions
and played word games. "District" became "deer," "ice" meant "strict," and "potato" indicated "grenades." If
the enemy ever did begin to decipher the code, the Navajos could switch to an alphabetic cipher. In this case,
the first letter of the English translation of a Navajo word corresponded to a letter. To add further confusion,
any of three words, or later eight, could be used for each letter. For example, A could be represented by the
Navajo words for ant, apple, or ax. Far from static, the code was reviewed before invasions and could be
modified as necessary.
When the code was completed, naval intelligence spent three weeks trying to break it and failed to decipher a
single message. White recruits familiar with Navajo could not deal with everyday conversational Navajo, and
even untrained Navajos, although they might pick up words, could not break the code. Code Talkers worked
with all six marine divisions in the Pacific and served with distinction on the islands of Iwo Jima, Saipan, and
Guadalcanal. The code was finally declassified in 1968, and President Ronald Reagan declared August 14,
1982 National Code Talkers Day to recognize the service of the 420 Code Talkers.
Japanese Americans in World War II
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The story most often told of Japanese Americans during World War II is of their internment in relocation
camps, which occurred as a result of fear, distrust, and politics after the Pearl Harbor attack on December 7,
1941. A lesser-known history is that of the extraordinary service, valor, and heroism of Japanese American
soldiers. Later in the war, when the Allies were hard-pressed in Europe, the War Department reversed its
policy of excluding Japanese American soldiers and sought volunteers. The response was overwhelming,
particularly in the territory of Hawaii. Soon after, the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which later merged
with the 100th Infantry Battalion, was raised. The troops quickly proved themselves and became some of the
most decorated soldiers of the war.
As a nation largely comprised of immigrants with diverse ethnic, cultural, religious, and political backgrounds,
the United States has often experienced racial tension and prejudice. Japanese immigrants, or Nisei, and
second-generation Japanese Americans, or Nisei, residing in the western United States in the mid-20th century
were accustomed to such an environment. The surprise attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, and the immense fear
and uncertainty that ensued, contributed to an even greater public unease with Japanese Americans. In
addition, the West Coast media fueled racial hostility with widespread characterizations of Japanese
Americans as the "yellow peril." Concern over possible espionage and sabotage led the government to order
the forced removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast. Gen. John Dewitt, the head of the War
Department, wasted little time in calling those of Japanese descent "an enemy race." As a result of the
combination of prejudice, fear, and economic competition on the West Coast, little public outcry arose when
President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 in February 1942, which ordered Issei and Nisei
to leave their homes for internment camps, most of which were in remote, uncomfortable areas of the western
United States. More than 75,000 of the 120,000 internees were Nisei, and some families had been here for
generations.
At the same time that the Issei and Nisei were rounded up for evacuation, military enlistment policy banned
Japanese Americans from armed service. Three months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, all Nisei were
reclassified as 4-C, or enemy aliens ineligible for military service. By May 1942, Hawaii had softened its
military policy, allowing for the formation of the Hawaii Provisional Infantry Battalion, or the 100th Infantry
Battalion, which was comprised of Hawaiian-born National Guardsmen. The number of enlisted remained low
until the War Department rescinded its policy of Nisei ineligibility in February 1943. In reversing the military
policy, Roosevelt invoked a founding principle of liberty: "The principle on which this country was founded
and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism
is not, and never was a matter of race or ancestry."
Nearly 10,000 Japanese American men from Hawaii volunteered, while approximately 1,250 interned Nisei
enlisted. The two-pronged loyalty oath required of all enlisted Nisei created a paradox: How could one show
allegiance to a nation that had suppressed their basic rights? If one refused the oath to the United States and the
repudiation of Japan in the process, he would be sent to the far-flung Tule Lake internment camp, which was
reserved specifically for enemy aliens. Some men chose to defy the loyalty oath altogether, returning to Japan
instead. A smaller number chose the armed service as a last-ditch effort to unequivocally prove their loyalty.
The 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which was comprised of Nisei internees, completed its training by June
1944. After arriving in Italy, the 100th Battalion and the 442nd Regiment were made one unit, fighting
together for the remainder of their tour of duty.
The 442nd and 100th landed in Naples, Italy, and proceeded to join in the fighting at the Battle of Anzio. Their
first test came in Suvereto, Italy, on June 26, but more trials followed, including action in Luciana and
Livorno. Through early summer, the 442nd and 100th helped the Allies drive the Germans north. For their
service in Italy, the 442nd was awarded with a Presidential Unit Citation, the recognition of bravery in
particularly dangerous conflicts. At the end of the year, the 442nd was transferred to France, where their
impressive combat record only grew. Fighting in conjunction with other units, the 442nd took an active part in
the Vosges campaign. During the action, they liberated several towns, including Belmont, Biffontaine, and
Bruyères. In the last battle, they fought inside the city, which was always a dangerous environment, and took
many German prisoners.
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Several events, including the successful penetration of the "Gothic Line" in Italy, the rescue of the "Lost
Battalion," and the liberation of both Dachau, the notorious Nazi concentration camp, and Rome, where they
were the first unit to arrive, highlight the bravery, cleverness, and motivation that the 442nd's battle cry and
motto "Go for Broke!" invoked. In March 1945, the 442nd took part in a number of battles in the Po River
valley campaign. Gen. Mark Clark and the other Allied commanders, including Col. Virgil Miller of the
442nd, decided to attack the Germans, who were encamped in the rugged Apennines Mountains, at night.
Through careful maneuvering, the 442nd scaled the mountains and situated itself strategically for attack. On
April 5, the 442nd and Clark's 92nd Infantry Division struck, taking the Germans by surprise, and within 24
hours, they broke the "Gothic Line" that had held the Allies at bay for six months. In the fierce fighting, Sgt.
Yukio Okutsu destroyed three machine-gun nests and took four prisoners. While he was not recognized during
the war, Okutsu received the Congressional Medal of Honor in 1999, as did two other veterans of the Po
campaign.
The rescue of the "Lost Battalion" is the feat for which the 442nd is best known. Low on supplies, the 141st
Texas Regiment had been surrounded in the Vosges Mountains and were in danger of death or capture by
German troops, who had explicit orders to maintain their position or die in the attempt. The 442nd were sent in
to retrieve the Texans. After days of hiking through rough country, skirmishes, and out-and-out fighting, the
442nd managed to get through to their besieged comrades. Once again, such individual heroism as
demonstrated by privates Barney Hajiro and George Sakato, who both manned machine-gun nests, helped rally
the 442nd to push on even when facing direct fire. One of their medics, James Okubo, was awarded the Medal
of Honor. Tired, wounded, and suffering from their heaviest loss of comrades, the 442nd remained with the
141st in the Vosges and secured the area over the next few days.
Two other events highlight the role the 442nd played in the last days of the war. The 442nd was the first unit to
reach Rome, and they were also the first to reach Dachau. The 442 not only gave the gaunt Holocaust survivors
food, medical aid, and clothing, but they also made it clear that the Nazis would not be returning and that the
prisoners were free.
Despite their valor and service, Japanese American veterans returned to a land that was still prejudiced against
them. While they fought valiantly overseas, their family members and friends endured tremendous emotional
and monetary losses as a result of internment. Most of the returning Japanese American soldiers were not fully
recognized for their war efforts until June 1999, when a monument honoring Japanese American veterans of
World War II was unveiled in Los Angeles. As the veterans of seven major battles, the 442nd became one of
the most highly decorated American units, earning 18,000 citations for valor and 3,600 Purple Hearts; the men
who later received the Medal of Honor were among 47 soldiers who had been awarded the Distinguished
Service Cross. The impressive service record of Japanese American soldiers was important socially as well.
Like the African American and Native American units of World War II, the efforts of the 442nd helped to
further integrate the military and change long-held views about race and diversity in the United States. Their
courage is underscored all the more so for having fought while relatives and friends were imprisoned in
internment camps.
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