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www.ourdocuments.gov November 30, 2009 Treaty of Ghent (1814) For the early decades of the nation’s history, relations between the United States and Great Britain remained strained. Their relationship deteriorated sharply with the outbreak of war in Europe in 1803. Britain imposed a blockade on neutral countries such as the United States. In addition, the British took American sailors from their ships and "impressed" them into the British Navy. In Congress, southern and western Democratic-Republican "War Hawks," such as the new Speaker of the House, Henry Clay of Kentucky, and Representative John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, led the sentiment for war, calling for a defense of American interests and honor. On June 1, 1812, President James Madison asked for a declaration of war. Shortly afterward, Congress, despite the opposition of every Federalist, approved the declaration. The War of 1812 produced a string of American military disasters. The most shocking of these was the British Army’s burning of the Capitol, the President’s house, and other public buildings in Washington on August 24 and 25, 1814. (Americans had previously burned public buildings in Canada.) In 1814, both sides were working to come to a resolution and agreed to discuss peace terms. A meeting in Belgium of American delegates and British commissioners ended with the signing of the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814. Great Britain agreed to relinquish claims to the Northwest Territory, and both countries pledged to work toward ending the slave trade. America, in turn, gained influence as a foreign power. News of the treaty spread slowly, and word of peace did not reach the American and British armies for some time. American forces, led by Andrew Jackson, won the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815, ending the hostilities after the official peace. For more information, visit the National Archives’ Treasures of Congress Online Exhibit. Treaty of Peace and Amity between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America.. ARTICLE THE FIRST. There shall be a firm and universal Peace between His Britannic Majesty and the United States, and between their respective Countries, Territories, Cities, Towns, and People of every degree without exception of places or persons. All hostilities both by sea and land shall cease as soon as this Treaty shall have been ratified by both parties as hereinafter mentioned. All territory, places, and possessions whatsoever taken by either party from the other during the war, or which may be taken after the signing of this Treaty, excepting only the Islands hereinafter mentioned, shall be restored without delay and without causing any destruction or carrying away any of the Artillery or other public property originally captured in the said forts or places, and which shall remain therein upon the Exchange of the Ratifications of this Treaty, or any Slaves or other private property; ARTICLE THE THIRD. All Prisoners of war taken on either side as well by land as by sea shall be restored as soon as practicable after the Ratifications of this Treaty as hereinafter mentioned on their paying the debts which they may have contracted during their captivity. The two Contracting Parties respectively engage to discharge in specie the advances which may have been made by the other for the sustenance and maintenance of such prisoners. ARTICLE THE SIXTH. Whereas by the former Treaty of Peace that portion of the boundary of the United States from the point where the fortyfifth degree of North Latitude strikes the River Iroquois or Cataraquy to the Lake Superior was declared to be "along the middle of said River into Lake Ontario, through the middle of said Lake until it strikes the communication by water between that Lake and Lake Erie, thence along the middle of said communication into Lake Erie, through the middle of said Lake until it arrives at the water communication into the Lake Huron; thence through the middle of said Lake to the water communication between that Lake and Lake Superior:" and whereas doubts have arisen what was the middle of the said River, Lakes, and water communications, and whether certain Islands lying in the same were within the Dominions of His Britannic Majesty or of the United States: In order therefore finally to decide these doubts, they shall be referred to two Commissioners to be appointed, sworn, and authorized to act exactly in the manner directed with respect to those mentioned in the next preceding Article unless otherwise specified in this present Article. The said Commissioners shall meet in the first instance at Albany in the State of New York, and shall have power to adjourn to such other place or places as they shall think fit. The said Commissioners shall by a Report or Declaration under their hands and seals, designate the boundary through the said River, Lakes, and water communications, and decide to which of the two Contracting parties the several Islands lying within the said Rivers, Lakes, and water communications, do respectively belong in conformity with the true intent of the said Treaty of one thousand seven hundred and eighty three. And both parties agree to consider such designation and decision as final and conclusive. And in the event of the said two Commissioners differing or both or either of them refusing, declining, or wilfully omitting to act, such reports, declarations, or statements shall be made by them or either of them, and such reference to a friendly Sovereign or State shall be made in all respects as in the latter part of the fourth Article is contained, and in as full a manner as if the same was herein repeated. ARTICLE THE NINTH. The United States of America engage to put an end immediately after the Ratification of the present Treaty to hostilities with all the Tribes or Nations of Indians with whom they may be at war at the time of such Ratification, and forthwith to restore to such Tribes or Nations respectively all the possessions, rights, and privileges which they may have enjoyed or been entitled to in one thousand eight hundred and eleven previous to such hostilities. Provided always that such Tribes or Nations shall agree to desist from all hostilities against the United States of America, their Citizens, and Subjects upon the Ratification of the present Treaty being notified to such Tribes or Nations, and shall so desist accordingly. And His Britannic Majesty engages on his part to put an end immediately after the Ratification of the present Treaty to hostilities with all the Tribes or Nations of Indians with whom He may be at war at the time of such Ratification, and forthwith to restore to such Tribes or Nations respectively all the possessions, rights, and privileges, which they may have enjoyed or been entitled to in one thousand eight hundred and eleven previous to such hostilities. Provided always that such Tribes or Nations shall agree to desist from all hostilities against His Britannic Majesty and His Subjects upon the Ratification of the present Treaty being notified to such Tribes or Nations, and shall so desist accordingly. ARTICLE THE TENTH. Whereas the Traffic in Slaves is irreconcilable with the principles of humanity and Justice, and whereas both His Majesty and the United States are desirous of continuing their efforts to promote its entire abolition, it is hereby agreed that both the contracting parties shall use their best endeavours to accomplish so desirable an object. War of 1812 On 18 June 1812, at the height of the Napoleonic conflict (see NAPOLEONIC WARS), the US declared war on Great Britain and struck at the only British possession on the continent: Canada. Most of the battles that followed took place along the international border. The war ended in stalemate. The Treaty of GHENT, signed 24 Dec 1814, solved nothing, since the reasons for the war - British high-handedness on the high seas, including searching American ships during the Napoleonic blockade and impressment - had been rendered academic by France's defeat. Yet Canada owes its present shape to negotiations that grew out of the peace, while the war itself - or the myths created by the war - gave Canadians their first sense of community. The British and Canadians were badly outnumbered by the Americans but better prepared for war, thanks to the prescience of Maj-Gen Isaac BROCK, administrator of UPPER CANADA. If the enemy could move up the traditional Champlain-Richelieu invasion route, seize Montréal and cut the lifeline between Upper and Lower Canada, the war would be as good as over. Brock thought this impossible because his Indian allies, under the Shawnee war chief TECUMSEH, had the American NW frontier in a ferment. The Americans would thus first try to secure their left flank. The bloodless British capture of a key US post at Michilimackinac I in Lk Huron, on July 17, and of Detroit, Aug 16, frustrated that strategy and gave the British control of Michigan territory and the Upper Mississippi. At this point Thomas Jefferson's remark that the capture of Canada was "a mere matter of marching" returned to haunt Washington. Having lost one army at Detroit, the Americans lost another at Queenston Heights (see QUEENSTON HEIGHTS, BATTLE OF), Oct 13, after their militia stood on its constitutional guarantee and refused to cross into Canada. But Brock was killed - an irreparable loss. A new American army under William Henry Harrison struggled up from Kentucky to try to retake Detroit. One wing was so badly mauled at Frenchtown, 22 Jan 1813, by a force of British, Canadians and Indians under Lt-Col Henry PROCTOR, that further attempts at invasion that winter were abandoned. The only Americans in Canada were prisoners of war. British strategy was to act defensively and allow the invaders to make mistakes. Gov Sir George PREVOST husbanded his thin forces carefully, a sensible precaution given the US's overwhelming numerical superiority. As the campaign of 1813 opened, the invaders determined to seize Kingston to cut the link between the Canadas. But a weakness of resolve diverted the attack to the lesser prize of York [Toronto]. The Americans briefly occupied the town, burning the public buildings and seizing valuable naval supplies destined for Lk Erie; but the British, by burning their half-completed warship, frustrated the enemy's plan to appropriate it and change the balance of naval power on Lk Ontario. Neither side totally controlled that lake for the balance of the war. The Americans abandoned York and on 27 May 1813 their fleet seized FT GEORGE at the mouth of the Niagara R. The British army escaped, however, repulsing the advance of the enemy up the Niagara peninsula by winning the battles at Stoney Creek and Beaver Dams (see BEAVER DAMS, BATTLE OF; STONEY CREEK, BATTLE OF), and driving the Americans back into the enclave of the fort. For all of that season the Niagara peninsula was a no-man's-land of marauding parties. Finally, worn down by sickness, desertion, and the departure of short-term soldiers, the American command evacuated Ft George on Dec 10 and quit Canada. On leaving, the militia burned the town of Newark [ NIAGARA-ON-THE-LAKE ], an act that drove the British to brutal retaliation at Buffalo. These incendiary reprisals continued until Washington itself was burned the following Aug. The US fared better on the western flank. The British tried and failed to take Harrison's stronghold at Ft Meigs on the Maumee R. A struggle for control of Lk Erie followed. The 2 rival fleets, both built of green lumber on the spot, met Sept 10 at PUT-IN-BAY. The British were hampered by the American seizure of naval supplies at York the previous spring and by the loss, early in the battle, of several senior officers. American commodore Oliver Hazard Perry, a bold seaman, used unorthodox tactics to turn defeat into victory and become the first man in history to capture an entire British fleet. Erie became an American lake, Detroit was abandoned, and the British retreated up the Thames R. At Moraviantown (see MORAVIANTOWN, BATTLE OF) Harrison defeated Proctor. Tecumseh died in the battle, an event signalling the end of the northwestern Indian alliance. But Harrison, his lines extended, could not follow up his victory; his Kentuckians were eager to get back to their farms at harvest time. Meanwhile, the US was mounting a 2-pronged attack designed to take Montréal, but this was so halfhearted that it was foredoomed to failure. On the Châteauguay R on Oct 26, a handful of French Canadian VOLTIGEURS under Lt-Col Charles de SALABERRY drove an American army of 4000 back across the border (see CHATEAUGUAY, BATTLE OF). At CRYSLER'S FARM (near Morrisburg, Ont) on Nov 11, Lt-Col Joseph Wanton Morrison's regulars won a resounding victory over James Wilkinson's superior force, which also quit Canada. Thus the 1813 campaign ended with the Americans in possession of Ft AMHERSTBURG on the Detroit R, and the British holding the 2 American forts, Niagara and Michilimackinac. The following year the Americans again crossed the Niagara, seized Ft Erie on July 3, and defeated the British at Chippawa on July 5, but failed to retake Ft George. The bitter battle of LUNDY'S LANE followed on July 25 within earshot of the Niagara cataract. Fought in the pitch dark of a sultry night by exhausted troops who could not tell friend from foe, it ended in stalemate. The Americans withdrew to Ft Erie. Here they badly mauled the forces of the new British commander, Lt-Gen Gordon Drummond, when he attempted a night attack (Aug 14-15). With both sides exhausted a 3month standoff followed. Finally, on Nov 5, the Americans again withdrew. Meanwhile, NS Lt-Gov Sir John SHERBROOKE led a force from Halifax into Maine, capturing Castine on Sept 3. By midmonth British forces held much of Maine, which was returned to the US only with the signing of the peace treaty. In the west, the Canadian voyageurs took Prairie du Chien on the Upper Mississippi and beat off an American attack on Michilimackinac I, capturing 2 warships on Lk Huron. In the east, the story was different. With Napoleon defeated, the British army now outnumbered the thin American force at Plattsburgh on Lk Champlain. Prevost marched S with 11 000 of Wellington's veterans but his hesitancy to attack - he was no Brock - together with the Sept 11 defeat of the hastily built British fleet in Plattsburgh Bay by the American commodore, Thomas Macdonough, caused Prevost to abort the ground attack and withdraw (see PLATTSBURGH, BATTLE OF). That single action tipped the scales, forcing the British peace negotiators at Ghent to lower their demands and accept the status quo. Had Prevost succeeded, much of upper NY state might be Canadian today. On the other hand, if the Americans had won the battle of Stoney Creek, or taken Montréal, much of Ontario and Québec - perhaps all - might now be under the Stars and Stripes. Washington had expected the largely American population of Upper Canada to throw off the British yoke as soon as its army crossed the border. This did not happen. Lured northwards by free land and low taxes, the settlers wanted to be left alone. Nor was it wise after such a bitter war to advocate American political ideals, such as democracy and republicanism. Thus the British and LOYALIST elite were able to set Canadians on a different course from that of their former enemy. And the growing belief that they, the civilian soldiers, and not the Indians and British regulars, had won the war - more mythic than real - helped to germinate the seeds of nationalism in the Canadas. See also NIAGARA HISTORIC FRONTIER; FORT HENRY. Causes and Events of the War of 1812: A Timeline Compiled by Robert Henderson This chronology shows visually when the political, military, and European events took place in relation to each other. For example four days after the United States declared war on Great Britain, Napoleon made the fatal mistake that eventually ended his reign by invading Russia. Links will eventually be added to this listing so the reader take click for additional information on an event or select at book that deals with the topic. Year Political Events Military Events Military Events in Europe 1807 June 22: The Chesapeake Affair: USS Chesapeake fired on and boarded by the December 22: Embargo Act passed by US HMS Leopard off Norfolk, Virginia Congress halting trade with Foreign Nations (repealed in 1808) June 13-14: Battle of Friedland between French and Russians July 9 After making peace with Russia, Napoleon bans trade with Great Britain. 1809 March 4: James Madison is inaugurated as president of the United States 1811 September 30: Brock becomes Lieut.Governor of Upper Canada October 12: Prevost becomes Governorin-Chief and Commander of all forces in British North America November 4: US War Congress convenes November 7: Battle of Tippecanoe were US defeats Indians 1812 January 19: British storm Ciudad Rodrigo, Portugal April 6: British repulsed at Badajoz, Spain June: Baltimore Riots start against antiwar Federalists June 1: Madison's recommendation to Congress to declare war over sailor's rights and British support of western frontier tribes. June 4: House of Representatives passes war bill June 18: Senate passes House bill Madison signs War Bill. June 19: U.S. President Madison declares June 23: USS President vs. HM Frigate war or Great Britain. Belvidera July 1: US doubles Customs Duties July 12: U.S. General Hull invades Upper Canada at Sandwich across from Detroit June 24: Napoleon invades Russia July 17: British forces from Fort St. Joseph capture Fort Michilimackinac July 22: Wellington's famous victory at Salamanca August 5: Battle of Brownstown August 13: British Army enter Madrid August 8: Battle of Maguaga August 15: Fort Dearborn massacre August 16: British forces under Brock capture Fort Detroit. August 19: USS Constitution vs. HM Frigate Guerriere September: Baltimore Riots finish September 3 : Indian attack at Pigeon Roost Creek September 4: Indians attack Fort Harrison September 7: Battle of Borodino September 14: Napoleon enters Moscow September 19: Napoleon begins retreat from Moscow September 5: Indians attack Fort Madison September 6: Indians attack Fort Wayne October 20: Sheaffe becomes Lieut. Governor of Upper Canada October 21: British give up siege of September 16: Americans fail in capturing batteaux convey at Toussiant Island of the St. Burgos, Spain. Lawrence River September 21: American attack and capture village of Gananoque in the Thousand Islands area November 29: Napoleon's shattered army exits Russia October 9: Two British schooners captured off Fort Erie; small skirmish near Fort Erie . October 13: Battle of Queenston Heights and death of Brock and Macdonnell November: Royal Navy blockades South Carolina November 27: US attacks the outlying fortifications of Fort Erie November 28: U.S. invasion attempt at Frenchman's Creek repulsed. December 18: Battle of Mississnewa December 26: Royal Navy expands blockade to Chesapeake and Delaware Bays 1813 January 19: Skirmish at the River Raisin. January 22: British victory at Frenchtown. January 23: Massacre of US wounded at River Raisin February 6: U.S. raid on Brockville on the St. Lawrence River. February 22: British capture Ogdensburg, NY as retaliation for Brockville attack. March 30: British naval blockade extended from Long Island to the Mississippi April 15: US army occupies West Florida April 27: U.S. troops attack and burn York (Capital of Upper Canada). June 4: armistice between France and Russia, and Prussia June 21: Wellington's decisive victory over the French at the Battle of Vitoria May 26: Britain's Royal Navy extends blockade to cover additional states May 25: U S. bombards and destroys Fort George. May 27: U.S. troops capture Fort George; British troops retreat toward Burlington. June 19: de Rottenburg becomes Lt. Governor of Upper Canada July 21 to August 1: Battles of the Pyrenees Mountains between France and Spain ending in British success May 29: British fail to capture Sacket's Harbor. August 10: armistice ends between France and Russia and Prussia August 12: Austria declares war on June 1: H.M.S. Shannon defeats U.S.S. France Chesapeake tows her captive into Halifax, Nova Scotia. June 6: British victory at Stoney Creek. June 7: British victory at 40 Mile Creek; U.S. retire to Fort George. June 22nd Skirmish at Norfolk June 24: Capture of US forces at Beaver Dams. August 31: British storm San Sebastien, Spain October 16-18: Napoleon defeated at the Battle of Leipzig marking the beginning of the end for his reign. July 8: Battle of Ball's Farm. July 11: British raid on Blackrock. July 20: U.S. victory at Goose Creek. July 27: Engagement at Burnt Corn July 31: British victory at Burlington Heights. August 2: British attack Fort Stephenson. August 8: U.S.S. Hamilton & Scourge sunk. August 24: Prevost leads attack on U.S. piquets ou George; U.S.decline large scale engagement November 10: Battle of the Nivelle with the British invading France August 30: Attack at Fort Mims September 9: British Fleet on Lake Erie defeated and capture by US under Perry. October 1: US army under Hampton cross frontier south of Montreal and skirmish with Canadian piquets December 13: Drummond becomes Lt. Governor of Upper Canada October 5: British defeated at Moraviantown; (Battle of the Thames) Tecumseh killed October 25: American invasion attempt at Chateauguay repulsed November 3: Battle of Tallushatchee November 9: Battle of Talladega November 11: American defeat at Chrysler 's Farm. December 10: U.S. army abandons Fort George and burns town of Newark (Niagaraon-the-Lake). December 18-19: British capture Fort Niagara in night attack; capture and burn Lewiston and surrounding villages December 20: British begin to lay waste to the East Niagara River area in retaliation for the burning of Newark. December 31: British capture Blackrock 1814 January 22: Battle of Emuckfau January 24: Battle of Enotachopco March 27: Battle of Horseshoe Bend April 14:US repeals embargo and nonimportation laws March 31: Allies enter Paris April 6: Napoleon abdicates April 10 to 12: British take Toulouse April 25: Royal Navy extends blockade to New England May 30: British Infantry march to Bordeaux to set sail for North America; First Treaty of Paris May 30: British blockade extended to include signed. New England. May 6: British capture Oswego. May 31: U.S. victory at Sacket's Harbor. July 13: U.S. capture Fort Erie. July 5: U.S. defeat British at Chippewa. July 18: U.S. troops burn St. Davids. July 19: British capture La Prairie du Chien. August:US public credit collapses and banks suspend specie payments July 25: Battle of Lundy's Lane - both sides claim victory October 3: Congress of Vienna opens unofficially August 8: Peace negotiations begin in Ghent and Great Britain offers initial peace terms August 9: US and Creek nation sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson August 13-14: British begin siege of Fort Erie. August 24: British burn Washington. September 11: US repulse British at Battle of Plattsburg and defeat British on Lake October 21:British offer peace on the basis Champlain of 'uti posseditis' Sept. 13-14: Siege of Fort McHenry (Battle of November 27: Britain drops the 'utis Baltimore) - "Star Spangled Banner" is posseditis' inspired by British mortars and rockets. December 15:Hartford Convention- US adopts additional internal taxes September 17: British assault fails against Fort Erie. December 24: Treaty of Ghent signed to end war. December 23: Initial skirmishes around New Orleans 1815 January 8, 1815: Battle of New Orleans. February 8, 1815: News of Peace first arrives in North America. March 1: Napoleon lands in France from Elba March 1, 1815: General Prevost is officially notified of Peace at Quebec. The War of 1812 (1809-1815) Summary The immediate causes of the War of 1812 were a series of economic sanctions taken by the British and French against the US as part of the Napoleonic Wars and American outrage at the British practice of impressment, especially after the Chesapeake incident of 1807. In response to the 1806 British Orders in Council, which crippled American trade, the US (under Jefferson) first tried various retaliatory embargoes. These embargoes hurt the US far more than they did Britain, angering American citizens and providing support to War Hawks in Congress like Henry Clay. In 1812, with President Madison in office, Congress declared war against the British. The war began with an attack on Canada, both as an effort to gain land and to cut off British supply lines to Tecumseh's Indian confederation, which had long troubled the US. The initial battles in Canada were not as easy as the War Hawks hoped, and the inexperienced American soldiers were pushed back rapidly. In fact, only by virtue of clutch naval victories by Oliver Hazard Perry on Lake Erie and Thomas Macdonough on Lake Champlain was a serious northern- front invasion of the United States, including New York, prevented. General William Henry Harrison's forces did manage to kill Tecumseh at the Battle of the Thames in 1813, in the midst of a decisive victory against the British General Isaac Brock's smaller force. On the Mid-Atlantic Coast, British troops landed in the Chesapeake Bay area in 1814, and marched towards Washington. US General William Winder made an attempt to stop the British forces, commanded by General Robert Ross, at Bladensburg. The US troops were badly routed. The city of Washington was evacuated, and the British burned the Capitol and the White House, along with most of nonresidential Washington. The British pressed onward, and Admiral Cochrane sought to invade Baltimore. General Ross was killed as his forces advanced towards the city, and their movement stalled. Cochrane's forces bombarded Fort McHenry, which guarded Baltimore's harbor, but were unable to take it. This event inspired Francis Scott Key, an American lawyer detained on one of Cochrane's ships, to write the StarSpangled Banner. Unsuccessful at Baltimore, Cochrane's damaged fleet limped to Jamaica for repairs, and made preparations for an invasion of New Orleans, hoping to cut off American use of the Mississippi River. By mid 1814, the War of 1812 was turning out to be tougher fighting than either side expected. Britain, caught up in the costly Napoleonic Wars, began to look for a way to extricate itself from its American commitment. In the Belgian city of Ghent, American negotiators (including John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay) met with British diplomats. After considerable bickering, the negotiators signed the Treaty of Ghent on December 24, 1814, officially ending the war. The treaty returned US-Britain relations to the same status as they had been before the war. The US neither gained nor lost any territory. Impressment went unaddressed. The war was officially over, but news traveled slowly across the Atlantic Ocean. In New Orleans, Cochrane landed the British troops, who were still waiting for their replacement commander for Ross, General Packenham, to arrive from Britain. On January 8, 1815, Andrew Jackson's ragtag army soundly defeated the British at the Battle of New Orleans. Even though this battle had been fought unnecessarily (the treaty was already signed) the US celebrated wildly, manifesting an upsurge in American nationalism. Although the war had sheltered New England manufacturing from British competition, New England merchant shipping had been seriously hurt, and a group of Federalists met at the Hartford Convention in late 1814 to discuss their grievances. A few talked of secession from the Union, but most just wanted to make it hard for the US to declare war or impose embargoes in the future. When the news of the treaty from Ghent arrived, it made the Federalists look silly, or even treasonous. The Hartford Convention spelled the end of the Federalist Party. Context Coming out of the American Revolution, the US and Britain still faced many unresolved tensions. The British practice impressment had gone on for hundreds of years, and the independence-minded Americans were no longer willing to tolerate such an affront to their sovereignty. Further, thanks to memories of the Revolutionary War, deep enmity remained between the two nations: Britian had a score to settle, and the US felt deeply that it had to stand its ground. Many at the time of the War of 1812 considered it a "Second War for American Independence," linkages with the first stood strongly in many minds. While pressure for war with England built during his presidency, Thomas Jefferson looked back to the painful struggle of the Revolutionary years and did all he could to search for more peaceful alternatives, such as an embargo. The legacy of the Revolutionary War, however, had a double impact. While it discouraged the desire for war in the generation that fought it, its successes made the men of the next generation seek a war of their own. It was a desire to mathc and surpass their father's tales of the Revolutionary War that made the young War Hawks in Congress so pro-war by 1812. Most clearly, the War of 1812 was an outgrowth of the Napoleonic Wars, a series of conflicts in Europe from around 1800 to 1815. Napoleon was trying to hurt Britain's economy with his Continental System; Britain retaliated with economic sanctions of its own, preventing imports from the rest of the world into European ports. Fledgling America felt the pinch in this titanic battle between France and Britain, and it made an attempt to play the great powers against each other with Macon's Bill No. 2, which promised US support for whichever nation stopped the embargo on American ships. These attempts backfired, as Napoleon tricked Madison by agreeing to abide by Macon's bill without actually doing so. The US had taken a powerfully antagonistic position toward Britain with little to show for it. The situation fell quickly into war. The War of 1812 had several important long-term results for the US. First, because it involved a necessary ban on British manufactures, the war sheltered New England factory owners. Without having to compete with cheap British goods, American industry jump-started during the war years, accelerating the pace of industrialization in the North, a process that would continue for the next hundred years with few interruptions. Also, at the end of the War of 1812, Henry Clay proposed an "American System," including the building of a national railroad network. The project of building a national railroad would continue on through the 19th century, transforming the nation in the process. Second, at the end of the war, Federalists upset with the war met at the Hartford Convention. The meeting appeared to the country as unpatriotic at best, and treasonous at worst. As a result, Federalist power declined rapidly, and the Federalists ceased to be players on the national stage. At the same time, the mild Federalist talk of secession at the Convention helped provide a foudnation for theories of States' Rights and secession that exploded in the Civil War. Finally, the War of 1812 produced many heroes. In terms of future American politics, eventual presidents Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison rose to national prominence by battling Indians and Redcoats during the war. America's conception of itself also gained a defining gem duyring the war: Francis Scott Key composed the words to the "Star Spangled Banner" at the Battle of Baltimore in 1814. Further, this second war against Britain boosted American nationalism, and paved the way for a primarily isolationist 19th century America. And though it would be another century before the US would emerge as a world power, after going once again facing the British and emerging intact, US sovereignty in the Western Hemisphere would never again be legitimately challenged. The War of 1812 (AKA The Second War of Independence or the War that Nobody Won) Causes of the War Britain and France are at war in Europe. This means that many of the British ports are closed. American ships cannot deliver their cargoes to sell in Britain. Britain is stopping and searching American ships to look for deserters from the British army. They are still treating the United States as though it is a colony and not an independent country. The United States is growing rapidly and its people are always looking for new farmland. They are expanding westward but the First Peoples in that area are hostile to this expansion. Some Americans see British North America, especially the rich, inexpensive land in Upper Canada, as an excellent way to gain more farmland. They also believe that if they could make Canada a part of the United States, they would gain some allies with the First Peoples. Main Events of the War June 1812 The United States declares war on Britain. July 1812 The American army enters Upper Canada. American General William Hull triesto persuade Canadians to surrender rather than fight with the British, saying that becoming part of the United States would free them from the tyranny of Britain. He warns them not to make alliances with the Indians against the U.S. July 1812 British army captures the American Fort Michilimackinac on Lake Huron. August 1812 British General Isaac Brock and Shawnee Chief Tecumseh capture Detroitfrom the Americans. October 1812 General Brock is killed at the Battle of Queenston Heights. April 1813 The Americans are advancing farther into Upper Canada, and they captureYork (today’s Toronto, the capital of Upper Canada, on Lake Ontario), burningthe Parliament Buildings. October 1813 Chief Tecumseh is killed. The Americans destroy British ships on Lake Erie. Summer 1814 Americans retreat to Fort Erie. British attack the American President’s house in Washington and set it on fire (today’s White House). December 1814 A Peace Treaty is signed to end the war. Neither the Americans nor the British claim victory. Effects of the War The Americans gave up on the idea of making Canada part of the United States. Instead, they expanded to the west and the south in the U.S. Britain started to treat the United States as an independent country. However, after this war, Britain stopped encouraging American immigration to Canada. Upper Canada and Lower Canada began to feel a connection to one another because they had fought together against the Americans. The U.S./Canada border was established more or less as it is today. All military forces were removed from the Great Lakes.