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Geography-Chapter 17-The Northeast
Geography Matters...
In the Northeast, cultures are fundamentally tied to religion. Islam is the most widely practiced
of them all. For hundreds of years, it has defined people’s lives in the region. The Northeast is
not homogenous, however. Many different ethnic groups live in the Northeast, including Arabs,
Persians (Iranians), Turks, and Kurds.
LESSON 1-Physical Geography of the Northeast
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The mountains that dominate the Northeast have shaped and continue to shape human history.
Some of the earliest civilizations sprang from this ancient land. Today, the Northeast subregion
is home to the countries of Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.
Landforms
What features dominate the physical geography of the Northeast?
The Northeast is a largely mountainous area, but it also features a range of other significant
landforms and environments, particularly the broad plain of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in
Iraq. The subregion occupies a part of the Earth where several tectonic plates converge. The
movement of these plates has produced the many mountain ranges that dominate the Northeast.
Movement along the fault lines produces earthquakes.
The North Anatolian Fault extends much of the distance across Turkey. At about 750 miles
(1,200 km) long, it rivals the San Andreas Fault of California in length. As the plates slide past
each other in an east-west direction, they can rupture and cause destructive earthquakes. Over the
last seven decades, the North Anatolian Fault has been among the most active faults in the world,
with nearly a dozen quakes exceeding 6.7 on the Richter scale of earthquake magnitude.
Recently, the East Anatolian Fault in eastern Turkey has also become more active, causing
several large quakes in the twenty-first century. Earthquakes are also frequent in Iran. In recent
years, several devastating quakes have taken tens of thousands of lives.
Ancient volcanic activity also contributed to the mountainous terrain of the Northeast. Even
today, a number of volcanoes dot the region. Turkey alone has over a dozen volcanoes within its
borders.
The Pontic Mountains and the Taurus Mountains rise from theTurkish landscape. The highest
peak in the Pontic range rises to 12,900 feet (3,932 m). The Taurus Mountains have many peaks
which exceed 10,000 feet (3,048 m). Between these ranges lies the Anatolian Plateau, or central
massif. It stands 2,000 to 5,000 feet (610 to 1,524 m) above sea level. The plateau also has
extensive sections of relatively flat terrain. East of the Pontic range, camel-backed Mount
Ararat—at a height of 16,945 feet (5,165 m)—overlooks the Turkish-Iranian border.
To the east of Turkey, in Iran, lie the mountains of the Elburz and Zagros ranges. The Elburz
Mountains cover the northern portion of Iran with a series of peaks that often exceed 9,000 feet
(2,743 m). The tallest of these mountains is Iran’s highest peak—the volcanic Mount Damāvand,
which rises to 18,934 feet (5,771 m). The Zagros Mountains were formed by the collision of the
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Eurasian and Arabian plates. This mountain system stretches for 932 miles (1,500 km) from
southwestern Iran and extending into Iraq at its northwestern end. The tallest peak in this range,
Zard Kūh in Iran, is 14,921 feet (4,548 m) high.
In the western part of the subregion lies the Anatolian Peninsula, the location where the
continents of Europe and Asia meet. This great peninsula is surrounded to the north by the Black
Sea, to the east and south by the eastern Taurus Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, and to the
west by the Aegean Sea. It was historically referred to as Asia Minor. Today, it constitutes the
Asian part of Turkey.
Over thousands of years, rivers created an alluvial plain that covers the central and southern third
of Iraq. This alluvial plain is a low-lying area that is frequently marshy and covered with lakes
and swamps. It is this land that produced and sustained the earliest civilizations in human
history.
Describing How has tectonic activity shaped the Northeast?
Water Systems
How is the Tigris-Euphrates river system important to the human
geography of the Northeast?
The waterways of the Northeast have supported the birth of great civilizations and played vital
roles in the fates of nations and empires. Linking the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea is a key
waterway known as the Turkish Straits. It marks the border between Asia and Europe and
consists of three smaller waterways called, from west to east, the Dardanelles, the Sea of
Marmara, and the Bosporus. Through history, control of this waterway has produced military
and commercial advantages for those who possessed it. The ability to stop or profit from traffic
between the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea has been fought over repeatedly.
The Dardanelles is a narrow strait. At one point, it is only three-fourths of a mile (1 km) in width
and at no point along its 38 miles (61 km) is it greater than 4 miles (6 km) wide. It opens on its
eastern end to the small but deep Sea of Marmara. To the east of that point begins the Bosporus,
which is another long, narrow strait. The Bosporus runs for 19 miles (31 km) before emptying
into the Black Sea. The Black Sea encompasses a vast area, covering about 180,000 square miles
(466,200 sq. km).
In the mountains of far eastern Turkey, within 50 miles (80.5 km) of each other, two great rivers
begin their descent to the sea. These are the Tigris and the Euphrates. The rivers bound a region
known since ancient times as Mesopotamia, which means “the land between the rivers.” It is in
this region that some of the world’s earliest advanced civilizations arose. From its source, the
Euphrates flows through the Taurus Mountains and southwest toward the Mediterranean coast in
southern Turkey. But before reaching the Mediterranean, it turns southeast and continues in this
direction for most of its 2,235-mile (3,596 km) journey across Syria and Iraq.
The shorter Tigris, at 1,180 miles (1,900 km) in length, flows from a mountain lake. It moves
steadily southeast into Iraq. There, the Tigris and the Euphrates gradually converge. They almost
touch near the Iraqi capital, Baghdad. They then separate and converge again. The two rivers
eventually meet to form the Shatt al Arab. This river then flows the final 120 miles (193 km) to
the Persian Gulf.
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The dominant water feature in northern Iran is the Caspian Sea, which is slowly shrinking
because of evaporation and a reduction of water flowing into the sea from the Volga River. This
great inland sea forms the northern border of the country, where its waters are salty. The Caspian
Sea serves as an important transportation link between Iran and other Asian countries. The
Caspian also yields a number of valuable resources, notably oil and natural gas. Iran also has an
active fishery in the Caspian Sea. Southern Iran is bounded by the Persian Gulf (or Arabian Gulf)
and the Gulf of Oman. Between these lies the narrow Strait of Hormuz, a vital and strategic
outlet from the Persian Gulf to the Indian Ocean.
Explaining What is the significance of the Dardanelles, the Bosporus, and the Sea of Marmara?
Climate, Biomes, and Resources
How do mountains influence climate in Turkey and Iran?
The climate of the Northeast is heavily influenced by two major factors: mountain ranges and
proximity to major bodies of water. Coastal and highland areas near mountain ranges usually
receive the most rainfall. This is because moist, warm air is driven off the sea by the prevailing
winds.
Climate Regions and Biomes
In Turkey, the areas along the coast enjoy a Mediterranean climate. Temperatures are
subtropical, and typical Mediterranean scrub plants are native to the subregion. The summers are
warm and dry, and the winters are mild and rainy. A similar climate prevails in the northern part
of Iran along the Caspian Sea. The most valuable soils in Turkey are the alluvial soils found in
the valleys, deltas, and basins of the lowland areas.
The interior of Turkey features a semi-arid steppe climate, which means it is generally dry with
mild temperatures. Grasslands are the dominant vegetation type in the interior areas. This climate
supports pastoralism—the raising of livestock—which is widely practiced in these areas.
Western Iran also has an area of semi-arid steppe, although the temperatures are generally higher
than in Turkey.
The high mountains of the subregion form barriers that block moisture from the major bodies of
water from penetrating far inland. Thus, apart from the coasts, much of the Northeast
experiences arid or semi-arid climates. Deserts cover western and southern Iraq and eastern and
southern Iran.
Natural Resources
The most significant resources of the Northeast today are fossil fuels and the vital waterways that
transport them. Iraq and Iran are among the world’s leading producers of petroleum and natural
gas. Iraq has many untapped mineral resources. Known reserves include sulfur and phosphates.
Iran’s major natural resources include chromium, copper, iron ore, lead, manganese, zinc, and
sulfur. In addition to hydroelectric power, Turkey’s natural resources include coal, iron ore,
copper, mercury, and gold.
Turkey’s geographic location is also an asset. In 2006 a pipeline that carries oil from an oil field
in the Caspian Sea to the Mediterranean opened. Turkey benefits substantially from the transit
fees. Other pipeline projects are planned to transport oil to Europe through Turkey from other
countries.
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LESSON 2- Human Geography of the Northeast
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
In the Northeast, cultures are fundamentally tied to religion. Islam is the most widely practiced
religion in the subregion. For hundreds of years, it has defined people’s lives. Today, Islam is
the fastest-growing religion in the world.
History and Government
How have ancient civilizations and the discovery of oil impacted the Northeast?
The Northeast saw the rise of several great civilizations. The earliest was Sumer, followed by the
Babylonian, Persian, and Ottoman civilizations. More recently, the subregion’s rich oil resources
have helped make it the focus of the international quest to obtain and control energy supplies.
Civilizations and Empires
The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers formed a natural boundary around a historical region known
as Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia was one of the world’s first culture hearths. A culture hearth is
a center from which cultures develop and then spread to other places.
The rich alluvial soils of Mesopotamia supported the development of agriculture. As humans
learned to raise their own food, they were able to settle in permanent villages. Farmers could
produce a surplus, which supported growing populations. In larger, settled communities, people
now had time to develop new tools and organize and govern communities. In this way,
civilizations emerged.
Mesopotamia was home to the Sumerian civilization that developed some 5,000 years ago. The
Sumerians grew crops year-round and used canals to irrigate their fields. To keep records, they
developed an early system of writing based on cuneiform , which consists of wedge-shaped
symbols pressed into clay tablets. In time the Sumerians created a system of mathematics and a
code of law. About 1900 B.C., the Babylonian civilization emerged and dominated
Mesopotamia.
The Persian Empire arose to the east of Mesopotamia, in what is now Iran. By 500 B.C. the
Persians had conquered nearly all of the present-day territory of Iraq, Jordan, Israel, and Turkey.
One of their great engineering achievements was the building of qanats, or underground
canals. Qanats reduced the evaporation of water as it flowed from the mountains to farmlands.
The Ottoman Empire has its roots on the Anatolian Plateau. At its peak, the empire extended into
North Africa, western Asia, and southeastern Europe. The defeat of the Ottomans and Germans
in World War I ended some 600 years of rule.
Oil and the Modern Era
From the remnants of the Ottoman Empire, the modern country of Turkey was established.
Turkey is aligned militarily with Western Europe as a member of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO). It has applied for EU membership.
Once part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq became an independent state in 1932. It has experienced
considerable turmoil since. This includes a war with Iran (1980–1988) and two wars against the
United States and coalition forces. The most recent occurred between 2003 and 2011. It resulted
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in the arrest, conviction, and execution of dictator Saddam Hussein and the establishment of a
parliamentary democracy.
The last Persian Empire lost most of its territory to the Ottoman Empire, but the core of Persia—
modern-day Iran—remained an independent country. In 1979 a revolution overthrew the secular
government headed by the shah, and an Islamic Republic was formed. Islamic scholars, known
as mullahs, came to power. They continue to dominate Iranian politics. Recently, international
tensions have risen as Iran is suspected of developing nuclear weapons.
Fossil fuels are a major natural resource in the subregion. Oil was discovered near the Persian
Gulf in 1908. By 1911 the first commercial oil well was operating in Iran. Over time, the wells
produced large quantities of oil and came under the control of countries and national oil
companies, benefiting their economies.
In 1960 Iran and Iraq joined with several oil-producing neighbors to form the Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This group agreed to regulate oil production to keep oil
prices high. As the global demand for oil grew, OPEC assumed, or gained, more power over
global oil prices.
Explaining How did agriculture contribute to the formation of the Sumerian civilization?
Population Patterns
How have ethnic diversity and Islam shaped the population patterns of the Northeast?
The majority of people in the Northeast are Muslims. Their religion, Islam, has a significant role
in their cultures. While Islam is the primary religion, the population is ethnically diverse. Major
ethnic groups include Turks, Iranians, Arabs, and Kurds.
This ethnic diversity persists because over the past 8,000 years many peoples have occupied the
subregion. Each group added its own customs and beliefs to the local culture. Turkic peoples
migrated to the western Anatolian Plateau from Central Asia in the A.D. 1000s. The
name Iran means “land of the Aryans” (AR•ee•uhnz), from the ancient Indo-European people
who settled in Iran.
Today the majority of people living in Iraq are Arabs, with ethnic ties to the Arabian Peninsula.
The Kurds are an ethnic group that has lived for thousands of years in the mountainous border
areas of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. Kurds have no country of their own, though they call the land
they live in Kurdistan. Some Kurds participate in efforts to achieve independence and have
their own country.
Turkey and Iran each have populations of about 80 million people, while about 31 million people
live in Iraq. Population density ranges from about 246 people per square mile (95 people per sq.
km) in Turkey to about 117 people per square mile (45 people per sq. km) in Iran. All three
countries are increasingly urban.
The cities of İstanbul, Turkey; Tehran, Iran; and Baghdad, Iraq, dominate social and cultural life
in their respective countries. These cities have become overcrowded due to the rapid influx of
villagers seeking opportunities available in the urban centers. Iran has tried to address this
problem by moving some of its government offices to towns away from the capital, Tehran.
Identifying What are the major ethnic groups in the Northeast?
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Society and Culture Today
How do religion and language influence life in the Northeast today?
The legacies of the ancient civilizations of the Northeast can be seen today. Languages and
customs differ depending on ancestral homes. Arabic is the most commonly spoken language in
Iraq. Most Iraqi Arabs are Shia Muslims, but about 35 percent are Sunni Muslims. A small
percentage is Christian or another faith. Iranians speak Farsi, also called Persian, and the
majority are Shia. Turks speak Turkish, and most practice Islam. Modern Turkish culture blends
Turkish, Islamic, and Western elements. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims and speak Kurdish, a
language distinct from, but related to, Farsi.
Turkey, Iraq, and Iran all support systems of free public education. The amount of education a
child receives in a lifetime is 13 years in Iran, 12 years in Turkey, and 10 years in Iraq. Iran has
made great strides in educating its population since the Islamic Revolution. Before the
revolution, its literacy rate was under 50 percent. Today, the literacy rate is 77 percent in Iran,
more than 78 percent in Iraq, and over 87 percent in Turkey.
Health care varies in the subregion. Iraq is still struggling to rebuild hospitals after years of war.
In other countries, hospitals are government-owned and may suffer from doctor shortages,
especially in rural areas. In recent years, private hospitals in Turkey have begun competing with
state hospitals. The competition has led to improvements in state-owned hospitals.
Family and Status of Women
Family life usually includes the extended family. In Turkey, the average household consists of a
nuclear family with 3.8 persons, but the extended family remains important. The average
household size in Iran is similar, with 3.6 persons per household. In recent years, family size in
Iran has decreased due to a government-supported family planning program and the economic
effects of embargoes intended to stop Iran’s nuclear program. The average household in Iraq is
much larger than in Turkey and Iran, with an average of 6.7 persons.
The conservative Islamic culture of the Northeast defines the roles and opportunities available to
women. Government policies in some countries have improved the status of women. In Turkey,
a 2002 law gave women equal rights with men for marriage, divorce, and property. In Iran,
however, women’s rights were curtailed after the establishment of the Islamic Republic in 1979.
Many public places were segregated by sex, and female government workers were required to
observe an Islamic dress code. In the more secular state of Iraq, women and men have equal
rights under the law. However, lack of women’s rights and gender equity are issues that hinder
development in much of the Northeast.
The Arts
The early civilizations of the Northeast created sculptures, fine metalwork, and large buildings.
In Mesopotamia the Sumerians built large, mud-brick temples called ziggurats. These temples
were shaped like pyramids and rose high above the flat landscape. Sumerian architecture was
also characterized by the construction of arches and domes.
Literature in the Northeast is based on strong oral tradition, epics, and poetry. The Rubáiyát by
the Persian poet Omar Khayyám, who lived some 900 years ago, is the most famous
example. Osman’s Dream is an Ottoman epic dating to the 1200s that foretells of a great future
empire.
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The subregion also has a long tradition of fine carpet weaving that dates back to ancient Persia.
Iran is still a center for the production of Persian rugs. These spectacular rugs are works of art
and considered the finest made in the world today.
Differentiating In what ways does Iran differ from Iraq and Turkey in terms of society and
culture?
Economic Activities
On what natural resources do the economies of the Northeast depend?
Oil and natural gas are the major economic resources in the Northeast. There are other valuable
resources and economic activities in the subregion, however. For example, the Caspian Sea
supports Iran’s fishing industry. Agriculture produces many fruits and nuts, such as figs and
pistachios, of very high quality and value.
Resources, Power, and Industry
Both Iran and Iraq produce far more oil than they need for domestic consumption, and so are
leading exporters of oil. Revenues from oil exports are enormously important to their economies.
As members of OPEC, Iran and Iraq have considerable influence in global affairs. For example,
OPEC raised oil prices during the 1970s and placed an embargo on oil shipments to the United
States and other industrialized countries. OPEC actions can also have positive effects. OPEC
restored stability to the oil market and supported economic recovery during the global recession
in 2009. Events unrelated to OPEC also show the influence that Iraq and Iran can have in global
affairs. For example, in 2006 and 2008, oil prices rose sharply due to the ongoing conflict in Iraq
and tensions over Iran’s nuclear ambitions.
Turkey does not have the oil or natural gas resources that its regional neighbors do, but it does
produce hydroelectric power. Other key industries in Turkey include textiles, food processing,
and manufacturing autos and electronics. Turkey’s service sector also forms a significant part of
the economy.
Trade and Interdependence
The countries of the Northeast and the rest of the world depend on one another. Industrialized
countries need oil from the region; the region needs industrial products for its markets. Iran
operates oil-refining facilities, although Iraq’s oil-refining facilities were closed or greatly
restricted during the 2003–2011 U.S.-led war. Natural gas and oil pipelines are examples of the
advanced transportation systems that crisscross this subregion. Much of this network is designed
to move oil and gas from the fields to various ports. Since Turkey has access to the
Mediterranean and the rest of Europe, many pipelines from oil fields end in Turkish ports. Other
lines deliver oil to ports on the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Much of the oil shipped from
the Persian Gulf must pass through the Strait of Hormuz. The narrow strait is a choke point for
shipping. Military action, a shipping accident, or political decisions could possibly close the
strait. During most years, there are about 17 supertankers passing through the strait each day.
Television and radio broadcasting is expanding in the subregion, though government control of
the media in many places limits programming. Advances in satellite technology are improving
communication services. Wireless service and solar-powered radiophones are bringing telephone
service to more people. Cell phones are now common, and many people have computer and
Internet access.
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Identifying What is the most significant natural resource in the Northeast?
LESSON 3-People and Their Environment: The Northeast
ESSENTIAL QUESTION • How do physical systems and human systems shape a place?
The Northeast contains valuable natural resources. Human utilization of those resources,
however, can sometimes place other aspects of the environment at risk. Countries in the
subregion attain variable levels of success in maximizing the benefits from their resources while
minimizing the costs associated with obtaining them.
Managing Resources
How and why are water resources at risk in the Northeast?
Turkey has long utilized its many rivers for hydroelectric power and other purposes. In recent
years, Turkey has been engaged in a regional development project called the Southeast Anatolia
Project. The project is known as GAP in Turkey. GAP involves the construction of nearly two
dozen dams along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and a number of their feeder streams, or
tributaries. The plan also calls for a large number of hydroelectric stations capable of generating
huge amounts of energy. The project will divert water to irrigate about 4.2 million acres (1.7
million ha) of land. Finally, GAP is also an economic development program that provides a
number of benefits to a poor region of Turkey.
Such massive projects threaten existing water systems in a number of ways. The dams change
the course and ecology of rivers. They also inundate lands that were once dry and divert water
that would otherwise flow downstream. The effect on water quality and quantity is significant.
Many ecosystems and habitats are disturbed or even destroyed.
Southern Iraq is characterized by marshes. The lower portions of the Tigris and Euphrates
feature the Mesopotamian Marsh, which covers 15,000 square miles (38,850 sq. km). It is the
largest wetlands area in the Northeast. In recent decades the Iraqi government has undertaken the
draining of many of these marshlands. Marsh drainage was used to create farmland and divert
water for agricultural purposes.
Some marshlands were also drained for political reasons. The people who historically lived on
these lands—the Marsh Arabs—had developed a culture and economy based upon the marsh.
The Marsh Arabs became involved in uprisings against the regime of Saddam Hussein in the
early 1990s. During the uprisings they took refuge in the tall reeds. The Iraqi government
retaliated and drained large portions of the marshlands. The Marsh Arabs, whose cultural link to
the land went back thousands of years, were forced to relocate.
More recently, another threat to the marshes has become a concern: drought. The problem is
made worse by the heavy diversion of water for irrigation projects for agriculture in places like
Turkey. These factors have lowered water levels in many wetlands areas to dangerous levels.
Drought has also led to wetlands destruction in Iran.
Explaining How did politics play a part in the destruction of the Mesopotamian Marsh in the
1990s?
Human Impact
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What human activities result in air, land, and water pollution in the Northeast?
Human activity impacts the environment in many ways. A major threat is the pollution of air,
land, and water. Human activity can also lead to the loss or degradation of natural resources,
such as soils and forests. War has also had negative effects on the environment. During the
Persian Gulf War in 1991, Iraqi troops retreating from Kuwait set fire to more than 700 oil wells.
Huge black clouds of smoke polluted the area. Iraqi troops also dumped about 250 million
gallons (946 million l) of oil into the Persian Gulf. Thousands of fish and other marine life died
when the oil spill spread along the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf. Smoke from the oil well
fires threatened millions of birds. Oil pollution from routine shipping also adversely affects the
environment of the Persian Gulf.
Water pollution in the Caspian Sea is an issue. The Caspian Sea is the world’s largest inland
body of water, measuring 750 miles (1,200 km) from north to south with an average width of
200 miles (320 km). It has historically served as a key fishery, notable for its sturgeon and the
valuable caviar. Today, however, pollution threatens these fish populations.
There are several sources of biological and chemical pollutants in the Caspian Sea. Untreated
waste from the Volga River flows into the sea. The river also receives chemicals that run off
from industries located along its shores, which then flow into the Caspian. In Iran it has been
common practice to dump garbage from seaside cities and towns directly into the Caspian Sea.
Runoff from farms—carrying pesticides, fertilizers, and detergents—also flows into the sea,
adding to what is a major environmental problem.
Perhaps the biggest threat to the Caspian’s waters comes from the large oil-extraction operations
that take place throughout the sea. Much of this work is carried on by countries other than Iran
that rim the Caspian. The effects of pollution from oil and gas operations have been devastating.
Each year, thousands upon thousands of tons of hydrocarbons and heavy metals are spilled into
the Caspian. This pollution is likely to get worse as Iran and other countries increase their
exploitation of the large reserves of oil and gas beneath the Caspian Sea.
The Black Sea, which forms Turkey’s northern border, is also plagued by severe pollution. The
contributors are agricultural runoff and industrial pollution related to the shipping of oil. Much
of this pollution comes from countries other than Turkey. Of particular concern to Turkey is the
danger of an oil spill in the Bosporus. This major shipping channel sees a great deal of traffic by
oil tankers. With a population of more than 10 million, Turkey’s largest city—İstanbul—
straddles the Bosporus. Thus, the potential for environmental disaster is high. In addition,
Turkey’s ability to regulate traffic in the strait is limited by international agreements designed to
ensure the free flow of shipping.
In Iraq, the Tigris and the Euphrates have also suffered a serious decline in water quality. Some
of this comes from agricultural runoff, as water used for irrigation flows back into the rivers.
Pollution from industrial sources and sewage also threatens the rivers.
Air pollution is a problem in all of the countries of the Northeast, especially in urban areas. The
population of these areas has been growing. With that increase have come concerns about air
quality. Streets and roadways are frequently clogged with cars, many of which are older or
poorly maintained models that produce heavy exhaust. Iran’s capital, Tehran, has especially
suffered from severe air pollution. In recent years there have been many instances of school and
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public office closures due to high air pollution levels. The Iranian government has blamed air
pollution for thousands of deaths in the city.
In Iraq problems with air pollution raised the concern of U.S. military officials, who worried
about the effects on American soldiers stationed there. Iraq’s frequent dust storms produce large
amounts of airborne particulates, many contaminated with substances such as lead, a toxin still
used in Iraqi gasoline. Iraq has traditionally done little to ensure good air quality.
The health of forests and soils is threatened in several parts of the Northeast. In Iraq, for
example, soils in many areas have become increasingly saline—salty—to the point that many
areas have been abandoned for agricultural use. High salinity results from heavy irrigation in a
place where evaporation happens quickly. Iraq has also had major problems with overgrazing
and deforestation, which have left the soil exposed to seasonal rains. Many tons of soil have
been carried down the Tigris and the Euphrates and been deposited in the Persian Gulf.
Iran has sizable forests in the northern part of the country. These, however, have been heavily
exploited, especially in recent decades. Loss of forest resources is a major concern in the
country. In 1963 Iran nationalized its forests, but that failed to stop deforestation.
Turkey also has seen many of its historical forest resources destroyed. Areas once covered with
forests are now open plains. The loss of forests has brought a loss of soil. Erosion in hillier areas
is a serious problem for a country that depends heavily on agriculture.
Describing In what ways does oil extraction pose an environmental threat to the Northeast?
Addressing the Issues
How are environmental issues being addressed in the Northeast?
In Turkey there are many active groups working to address environmental issues. Opposition to
GAP has been strong. In Turkish universities, scientists have questioned some of the claimed
benefits of the project. Activists have also sought to prevent the destruction of archaeological
treasures that would occur if land is flooded for GAP. Supporters of GAP point out that
hydropower is a relatively clean way to address rising energy needs. Environmentalists have
placed a heavy emphasis on reducing Turkey’s historical dependence on coal, which is highly
polluting. There is lively debate in Turkey about the best ways to balance competing interests.
Political forces from outside Turkey are also having an impact. Turkey continues to make its
case for entry into the European Union (EU). In an effort to attain this goal, it has strengthened
certain environmental laws to meet EU standards.
The loss of wetlands in Iraq has prompted action from Iraqis as well as from people around the
world. Organizations such as Wetlands International and the International Wetlands Conference
are working on solutions to the threats. Iran has also been acting to protect its many valuable
wetlands. In 1971 Iran hosted the Ramsar Convention. This meeting produced an international
treaty, the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, to monitor—or closely watch—and preserve
wetlands resources around the world. Today, this convention brings together governments and
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) from around the world to protect wetlands of all types.
The Iranian government has also been vocal in raising concerns about pollution in the Caspian
Sea. Many of these complaints, however, have been aimed at other nations who contribute to the
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problem. In 2013, for example, Iran threatened to sue the government of Azerbaijan over
pollution coming from its oil platforms in the Caspian.
Evaluating What factors must Turkey balance when evaluating the benefits of its GAP project?