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LESSON NINE
COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is an educational philosophy which holds that learners ultimately
construct their own knowledge that then resides within them, so that each person’s
knowledge is as unique as him or her. (ALN Magazine 1997). In other words, learners
construct knowledge for themselves—each learner individually (and socially) constructs
meaning—as he or she learns.
Cognitive constructivism is based on the theory of Jean Piaget which proposes
that humans cannot be “given” information which they immediately understand and use.
Instead, they “construct” their own knowledge through experience and active interaction
with their environment.
In the Constructivist theory, the emphasis is placed on the learner or the student
rather than the teacher. It is the learner who interacts with objects and events and thereby
gains an understanding of the features held by such objects of events. The learner,
therefore, constructs his/her own conceptualizations and solutions to problems.
Basic Assumptions:
In essence, constructivism postulates the following:

Emphasizes learning and not teaching

Encourages and accepts learner autonomy and initiative

Sees learners as creatures of will and purpose

Thinks of learning as a process

Considers how the student learns

Encourages learner inquiry and nurtures learner’s natural curiosity.

Acknowledges the critical role of experience in learning

Takes the learner’s mental model into account

Emphasizes performance and understanding when assessing learning
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
Makes extensive use of cognitive terminology such as predict, create and analyze
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Encourages learners to engage in dialogue with other students and the teacher
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Supports co-operative learning and collaboration

Involves learners in real world situations

Emphasizes the context in which learning takes place

Considers the beliefs and attitudes of the learner

Provides learner the opportunity to construct new knowledge and understanding
from authentic experience
Aside from Piaget, two other noted contributors to cognitive constructivism are
Jerome Bruner and David Ausubel.
JEROME BRUNER (Categorization and Discovery Learning)
Jerome Bruner is one of the forerunners of the Cognitive Revolution in the late 1950’s
that was set to replace behaviorism. His most notable contributions were his ideas about
categorization. Bruner maintained that people interpret the world in terms of similarities
and differences which are detected among objects and events. Objects that are viewed as
similar are placed in the same category. The major variable in his theory of learning is the
coding system into which the learner organizes these categories.
Based upon the idea of categorization, Bruner’s cognitive learning theory states
“to perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form
categories, to make decisions is to categorize”.
Categorization involves two stages: (a) Concept formation which is the initial
understanding that there are different classes and categories and that there are
distinguishing attributes between objects/events. (b) Concept attainment where one can
determine what those particular attributes are and how they can be used to identify what
belongs and what does not.
Bruner believes that all human cognitive activity involve categories. This is the
process of building and using representations in order to make sense of the world. Either
incoming information is organized in terms of pre-existing categories or we create new
ones.
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Bruner identified three modes of representation, corresponding to the
developmental stages, that we use to make meaning out of what we encounter in the
world.. Each of these modes has its unique way of representing objects and events.
Table 3
Three Kinds of Representation Identified by Bruner
KINDS OF
REPRESENTATION
PROCESS
EXAMPLE
USE
Enactive
Represented in the
muscles (doing)
Tying a knot
Motor skills
Iconic
Using mental image
to stand for objects
Having an image of
what the knots
look like
Sensory skills
(mental picture of
things)
Symbolic
Using symbol
systems (thinking,
reasoning)
Describing the knot Intellectual skills
and how to tie it.
(knowing the reality
of things).
The first phase is enactive where a child’s world is represented
in terms of their immediate sensation and through which learning is
achieved through doing. These motor acts (know-how) that involve
sequential movements are being integrated by a certain conceptual
scheme.
The iconic stage happens during 2-3 years of age and involves the use of mental
images to stand for certain objects or events when they are changed in minor ways. The
symbolic representation is the highest and most complicated manner by which we
acquire learning. This phase starts from age 7 and beyond. It involves the ability to
transform action and image into a symbolic system to encode knowledge Primarily, these
symbols are language and mathematical notation.
Discovery Learning
Bruner also advocated the discovery oriented learning approach in schools which
he believes would help students discover the relationship between categories. This
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framework promotes learning as a process of constructing new ideas based on current and
past knowledge. Students are encouraged to discover the facts and relationships for
themselves and continually build on what they already know. The school curriculum is
ideally organized in a spiral manner to facilitate this process, such as the same topics are
redeveloped at succeeding age or grade levels to progressively reinforce learning.
(Bruner, 1966).
Bruner’s discovery learning focused on the significance of “understanding the
structure of the subject being studied, the need for active learning as the basis for true
understanding, and the value of inductive reasoning in learning. Students must be active
in discovering major concepts for themselves, rather than passively accepting the
teacher’s explanations. The discovery method enhances student learning by allowing the
class to be involved in the lesson, rather than simply being lectured to.
David Paul Ausubel (Verbal Learning and Expository Teaching)
Influenced by Piaget’s ideas, Ausubel developed his instructional models based
on cognitive structures. His significant contributions are the following:
Theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning
Ausubel contributed much to cognitive learning theory in his explanation of
meaningful verbal learning which he saw as the predominant method of classroom
learning. This theory deals mostly with how individuals learn large amounts of
meaningful materials from verbal and textual lessons in school. To Ausubel, a stimulus or
concept gains meaning when it is related to an idea that is already present in the mind.
Thus, there must be something in the learner’s cognitive structure to which it can be
related. He believed that a signifier (i.e. word) has a meaning when its effect upon the
learner is equivalent to the effect of the object it signifies. He described three main
categories on meaningful reception of information
1. Representation- the meaning of a single word or symbol is learned.
2. Conceptual – the learner begins to recognize the features or attributes of a
concept.
3. Propositional –the learner combines words and/or symbols to form new ideas.
Subsumption Process
A subsumer is a concept similar to a schema or coding system. It leads us to
think of cognitive structure as a type or organization where higher level concepts
incorporate or “subsume” other ideas. In describing the process of subsumption Ausubel
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contended that “ the most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner
already knows”.
Derivative subsumption occurs if the new material is so similar to existing structure that
could have been derived directly from it.
Correlative subsumption occurs if the new material requires an extension of structure
because some of it is entirely new.
After learning (subsumption) takes place, the newly subsumed material becomes
increasingly like the structure to which it was incorporated – in Ausubel’s terms, it losses
its dissociability. And when it has finally reached the point of zero dissociability, it can
no longer be recalled.
Reception and Expository Learning
According to Ausubel, people acquire knowledge primarily through reception
rather than through discovery as proposed by Bruner. Concepts, principles, and ideas are
presented and understood, not discovered. The more organized and focused the
presentation, the more thoroughly the individual will learn. He stresses meaningful verbal
learning and not rote memory. According to him rote memory is not considered
meaningful because it does not involve subsumption (new knowledge is not connected
with existing knowledge).
Ausubel specifies that his theory applied only to reception
(expository) learning in school settings.
Ausubel thus proposed his Expository Teaching model to encourage meaningful
rather than rote reception learning. In his approach he emphasized that teachers should
present material in a carefully organized, sequential manner so that students receive the
most usable material in the most efficient way. Ausubel believes that learning should
progress deductively- from the general to the specific – and not inductively as Bruner
recommended.
Advance Organizers
A major contribution of Ausubel is the use of advance organizers in learning and
teaching. These organizers must be introduced in advance and presented at a higher level
of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness. They are selected on the basis of their
suitability for explaining, integrating, and interrelating the material they precede. Ausubel
emphasizes that advance organizers are different from overviews and summaries, which
simply emphasize key ideas and are presented at the same level of abstraction and
generality as the rest of the material.
Organizers act as a subsuming bridge between new learning material and existing
related ideas. Optimal learning generally occurs when there is a potential fit between the
student’s schemas and the material to be learned. To foster this association, Ausubel
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suggests that the lesson always begin with an advanced organizer – an introductory
statement of a relationship of high level concept, broad enough to encompass all the
information that will follow.
Examples of advanced organizers are those found in some textbooks – the chapter
overviews that explains the lessons to be learned in the chapter. They usually serve three
purposes:
1. direct attention to what is important in the coming material
2. highlight relationships among ideas that will be presented and
3. remind the student of relevant information already in memory.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Assuming you are a teacher and you will be presenting to your class a topic of
your choice (could be in Science, Math, your field of specialization or maybe any
lesson in this Self-Learning Module). Prepare an advance organizer for your
presentation of this topic. Describe how you will present the new lesson to class
using this advance organizer.
2. Critical Thinking. Compare and contrast Bruner’s and Ausubel’s views about
teaching and learning. Which do you think is more effective discovery learning or
reception learning/expository teaching? Cite your own experiences to elucidate
your answers.
REFERENCES:
1. ALN Magazine Volume 1, Issue 1 . March 1997.
2. Ausubel, David P. (1963). The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal
Learning. New York: Grune and Stratton.
3. http://evolution.massey.ac.n2/assign2/BP/Bruner.html
4. http://www.infed.org/thinkers/bruner.htm
5. http://www.law.nyu.edu/faculty/bios/brunerj.html.
6. http://vanguard.phys.udiaho.edu/mod/models/ausubel/index.html.
7. http://tip.psychology.org/ausubel.html.
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LESSON TEN
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist and philosopher in the 1930’s, is most
often associated with the social constructivist theory. He emphasizes the influences of
cultural and social contexts in learning and support a discovery model of learning
The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical
framework is that social interactions play fundamental
role in the development of cognition. This type of model
places the teacher in an active role while the students’
mental abilities develop naturally through various paths of
discovery.
Vygotsky modeled his theory after the Soviet view
that each person has a role in transforming the society where he belongs.
Key Concepts in Vygotsky’s Theory
1. Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice:
a) first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level;
b) first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological).
This applies equally to the voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the
formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals.
2. In making meaning about of the world, the community plays a central role. The people
around the student greatly affect the way he or she sees the world.
3. The potential for cognitive development depends upon the Zone of Proximal
Development. Problem solving skills in doing tasks can be placed into three categories:
a. those able to be performed independently by the student;
b. those that cannot be performed even with help; and
c. those that fall between the two extremes, i.e. the tasks that can be performed with
help from others. This is what Vygotsky called the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD) – a level of development attained when children engage in social behavior.
The potential for cognitive development is limited by the ZPD. Furthermore, full
development during the ZPD depends upon full social interactions and the range of skills
that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be
attained alone.
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4. Tools for Cognitive Development
The type and quality of these tools determine the pattern and rate of development.
The tools may include important adults and peers of the student, culture, language and
others in the social environment.
5. Thought and Language Connection
Before the age of two years, the development of thought and speech are separate.
However, at two years, they join to initiate a new form. Thought becomes verbal and
speech becomes rational. Speech serves the intellect as thoughts are spoken. Thus, social
environment is important to children’s development because it can accelerate or
decelerate development.
6. Language and Egocentric and Inner Speech
Language is a tool for organizing thinking because it bears the concepts. The
primary function of speech is communication. Communicative and egocentric speech are
both social with different functions. Speech develops first with external
communicative/social speech, then egocentric speech, and finally inner speech.
Vygotsky theorized that egocentric speech has a genetic connection with inner
speech. Egocentric speech is the key to studying inner speech because it is the stage that
precedes it. Both fufill intellectual functions and have similar structures. Inner speech is
for oneself while external, social speech is for others.
Application of Vygotskian Principles in the Classroom
1. Learning and development is a social, collaborative activity.
2. The Zone of Proximal Development can serve as a guide for curricular and lesson
planning.
3. School learning should occur in a meaningful context and not be separated from
learning and knowledge children develop in the “real world”.
4. Out-of-school experiences should be related to the child’s school experience.
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LESSON ELEVEN
THE CONDITIONS OF LEARNING (Robert Gagne)
Robert Mills Gagne was a research director of the perceptual and motor
skills laboratory of the US Air Force when he developed his ideas on his
comprehensive learning theory, the “conditions of learning”, or sometimes
called hierarchical learning.
Conditions of Learning
In his best known book The Conditions of Learning (
) Gagne
enumerated 8 conditions where there is a hierarchy or progression of
increasing complexity in learning from the most basic condition to the most
complex one.
1. Signal learning – stage where involuntary responses are learned; this condition
is similar to classical conditioning.
2. Stimulus-response learning – where voluntary responses are learned; similar to
operant conditioning.
3. Chaining – a series of stimulus-response connections are linked.
Example: adding 1 and 2 as 3.
4. Verbal association – this stage entails labeling certain responses.
5. Discrimination learning – the condition where the learner selects a response
which applies to certain stimuli. Example: choosing 2 rather than 3 when
presented with the problem: 1+1 = ________ .
6. Concept learning – involves classifying and organizing perceptions to gain
meaningful concepts.
7. Principle learning – involves combining and relating concepts already learned to
formulate a new one: Example: 1+2 =3 is the same as 2+1=3 (association)
8. Problem solving- the most complex condition which involves applying rules to
appropriate problem situation.
Teaching implication: The significance of this hierarchy to teaching is to identify
prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level and to provide
basis for the sequencing of instruction.
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Nine Phases of Learning
In addition to the learning conditions, Gagne came up with his nine phases of
learning or nine events of instruction and their corresponding cognitive processes.
Preparation for Learning
1. gaining the learner’s attention (reception)
2. informing learner’s of the learning goal or objective (expectancy)
3. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval)
Acquisition and Performance
4.
5.
6.
7.
presenting the stimulus (selective perception)
providing learning guidance (Semantic encoding)
eliciting performance (responding)
providing feedback (reinforcement)
Transfer of Learning
8. assessing performance (retrieval)
9. enhancing retention and transfer of learning (generalization)
These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as
the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs &
Wager, 1992). While Gagne’s theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the
focus of the theory is on intellectual skills.
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Give an example to illustrate a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine
instructional events described by Gagne.
Cite a specific learning task with an objective such as “Teaching students how to
recognize an equilateral triangle”.
2. Critical Discussion:
Compare cognitive constructivism with social constructivism. Point out the strong
points and weak points of each theory in relation to the teaching-learning process.
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PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL FOR MODULE 3
Date:
Activity:
Reflections:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is ___________
____________________________________________. It has caught my attention and
interest because _______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to this topic/incident is/are ___________________
____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities/were
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to _________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
REFERENCES:
1. Domjan, M. (1993) The Principles of Learning and Behavior 3rd
ed., California: Brooks/Cole Publishing.
2. Santrock, John W. (2001) Educational Psychology, New York:
McGraw Hill, New York.
3. Woolfolk, Anita, E, (1998) Educational Psychology. Massachusetts:
Allyn and Bacon.
Websites on the topics:
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MODULE FOUR
SOCIAL/HUMANISTIC APPROACHES
IN LEARNING
Learning Objectives:
After reading this module, the students should be able to:
1. Explain how individuals learn through modeling and imitation.
2. Cite specific situations where cooperative learning would be highly
effective.
3. Differentiate humanistic education learning from behavioral and
cognitive views in learning.
4. View the teaching-learning process from the social and humanistic
perspective.
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LESSON 12
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY (Bandura)
Albert Bandura believes that the traditional behavioral views of learning are
incomplete because they overlook important elements, particularly the social influences
on learning. Thus, his Social Learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a
social context. It considers that people learn from one another through observational
learning, imitation and modeling. It emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others. Bandura’s theory is
also called Social Cognitive Theory.
Elements of Social Cognitive Theory
Bandura distinguishes between the acquisition of knowledge (learning) and the
observable performance based on that knowledge (behavior).
In social cognitive theory, both internal and external factors are important.
Environmental events, personal factors and behaviors are seen as interacting in the
process of learning. Personal factors (beliefs, expectations, attitudes, and knowledge),
the environment (resources, consequences of actions, and physical setting), and behavior
(individual actions, choices, and verbal statements) all influence and are influenced by
each other. Bandura calls this interaction of forces reciprocal determinism. (Woolfolk,
1998). In other words, there is the mutual effects of the individual and the environment
on each other.
Bandura made a distinction, between enactive and vicarious learning. Enactive
learning is learning by doing and experiencing the consequences of one’s actions;
vicarious learning is learning by observing others. Aside from modeling and imitation,
Bandura emphasizes that cognitive processes are involved because when people learn by
watching, they are focusing their attention, constructing images, remembering,
analyzing, and making decisions that affect learning.
Modeling and Imitation
Modeling, (also called observational learning) involves learning by observing
and imitating others’ behavior. By observing others, one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and later this coded information serves as a guide for action.
In Bandura’s classical Bobo doll experiment, children were exposed to models
in films. He had children witness a model aggressively attacking a plastic clown called
the Bobo doll. The children watched a video where a model aggressively hit a doll. In
one film, the model is rewarded, in another, the model is punished, and in the third,
nothing is done with the model. The result showed that children first chose to imitate the
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model who was rewarded, the no-consequence model was next and the model who was
punished was the last choice.
With his experiment Bandura showed that
1. the tedious and hazardous process of trial and error learning can be shortcut
through social modeling of knowledge and competencies exhibited by the rich
variety of models.
2. in addition to cultivating new competencies, modeling influences can alter
motivation by instilling behavioral outcome expectations, and creating emotional
tendencies and value systems.
3. modeling influences can promote creativeness by exemplifying diversity for novel
synthesis and fresh perspectives that weaken conventional mind sets.
Process of Observational Learning
There are four important elements or component processes involved in observational
learning.
1. Attention
Individuals cannot learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to the
significant features of the modeled behavior. As applied in the classroom, the teacher
must ensure student attention to critical features of the lesson.
2. Retention
In order to imitate the modeled behavior, the student must remember it. Retention
involves mentally representing the model’s actions, most likely as verbal steps, visual
images or both. Retention can be improved by mental rehearsal or by actual practice. The
individual must code the information into long-term memory.
3. Motor Reproduction
The observer must be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. Practice, feedback and
coaching can help reproduce the behavior of the model. Once a behavior is learned
through attention and retention, the observer must posses the physically capabilities to
produce the act.
4. Motivation and Reinforcement
In this process, the observer expects to receive positive reinforcement for the modeled
behavior. We may acquire a new skill or behavior through observation, but we may not
perform that behavior until there is some motivation or incentive to do so. Reinforcement
can play several roles in observational learning. If we anticipate being reinforced for
imitating the actions of a model, we may be more motivated to pay attention, remember,
and reproduce the behaviors.
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Factors That Influence Observational Learning
Several factors play a role in observational learning, as shown in the table below.
The last three influences involve goals, and expectations. If observers expect that certain
actions of models will lead to particular outcomes (such as particular practice regiments
leading to improved athletic performance) and the observers value those outcomes or
goals, then the observers are more likely to pay attention to the models and try to
reproduce their behaviors. Finally, observers are more likely to learn from models if the
observers have a high level of self-efficacy- that is, if they believe they are capable of
doing the actions needed to reach the goals, or at least of learning how to do so.
Factors That Affect Observational Learning (Woolfolk, 1998)
CHARACTERISTICS
Developmental status
Model
prestige
competence
EFFECTS ON MODELING
Improvements with development include longer attention and
increased capacity to process information, use strategies,
compare performances with memorial representations, and
adopt intrinsic motivators.
and Observers pay greater attention to competent, high-status
models. Consequences of modeled behaviors convey
information about functional value. Observers attempt to learn
actions they believe they will need to perform.
Vicarious consequences
Consequences to models convey information about behavioral
appropriateness and likely outcomes of actions. Valued
consequences motivate observers. Similarity in attributes or
competence signals appropriateness and heightens motivation.
Outcome expectations
Observers are more likely to perform modeled actions they
believe are and will result in rewarding outcomes.
Goal setting
Observers are likely to attend to models who demonstrate
behaviors that help observers attain goals.
Self-efficacy
Observers attend to models when they believe they are capable
of learning or performing the modeled behavior. Observation
of similar models affects self-efficacy (“If they can do it, I can
too”)
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Educational Implications of Social learning Theory:
Social Learning Theory has numerous implications for classroom use.
1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.
2. Describing the consequences of behavior can effectively increase the appropriate
behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. This can involve discussing with
learners about the rewards and consequences of various behaviors.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Instead
of using shaping, which is operant conditioning, modeling can provide a faster,
more efficient means for teaching new behavior. To promote effective modeling,
a teacher must make sure that the four essential conditions exist; attention,
retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they
do not model inappropriate behaviors.
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. This technique is
especially important to break down traditional stereotypes.
6. Student must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Thus it
is very important to develop a sense of self-efficacy for students. Teachers can
promote such self-efficacy by having students receive confidence-building
messages, watch others be successful, and experience success on their own.
7. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic
accomplishments.
8. Self-regulation techniques provide an effective method for improving student
behavior.
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LESSON 13
COOPERATIVE LEARNING
According to Johnson and Johnson (1987), there are three basic types of learning that
goes on in any classroom:
1. Individualistic learning - the more traditional structure of learning that has each
student working independently on a project. Student accomplishment toward a
specified goal relies little, if any, on other student’s performance.
2. Competitive learning - a structure where students are vying against each other in
order to accomplish a particular goal. Students find themselves in Win-Lose
situations i.e. “in order for me to win, you must lose”.
3. Cooperative learning - a structure that utilizes small groups to encourage students
to work together to optimize their own and their peer’s learning.
While the first two types involve individualistic behaviors, the third type, cooperative
learning will not be possible without social participation. .
What is Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative learning is a successful teaching strategy in which small teams each with
students of different levels of ability, use a variety of learning activities to improve their
understanding of the subject. Each member of the team is responsible not only for
learning what is taught but also for helping teammates learn, thus creating an atmosphere
of achievement. Students work through the assignment until all group members
successfully understand and complete it.
According to Joan Henley (ISG501 Homepage) Cooperative classrooms are changing the
essence of learning from “I classrooms” to “We classrooms”. As a classroom structure,
cooperative learning allows students to work together in small, mixed-ability groups.
The teacher’s role shifts from learning disseminator to learning facilitator. The
responsibility for learning shifts from the teacher to the student. Furthermore, students
working in cooperative groups have an additional twist to their learning. They are not
only responsible for learning the material that is presented but also for ensuring everyone
in the group knows the material as well. (Slavin, 1987).
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Why Use Cooperative Learning?
Cooperative learning has been widely used in many developed countries because of its
promise of enhancing learning while promoting cooperation and social involvement.
Research has shown that cooperative learning techniques:
1. Place the responsibility for student learning where it should be – the learner.
Cooperative learning promotes higher level thinking skills, while allowing
students to develop better social skills. (Diane Augustine, Kristine Gruber, and
Lynda R. Hanson, 1989).
2. Develop student’s social skills. Nowadays, children come from one-parent
households and come home to an empty household after school. The opportunity
to appropriate social skills around the family table is no longer a given. Without
appropriate socialization skills, the ability to cooperate and work with others as a
team is minimized. (Kagan, 1994).
3. Help to promote positive race relations. Limited English speaking students and
racial relations are only two reasons why students need to be taught “social
skills”. Cooperative learning provides a platform for instruction. (Johnson and
Johnson, 1994).
4. Other contributions of cooperative learning are:
a. Promote student learning and academic achievement
b. Increase student retention
c. Enhance student satisfaction with their learning experience
d. Help students develop oral communication skills
e. Promote student self-esteem
Five Components of Cooperative Learning
While cooperative learning has shown efficacy as a new approach in learning, it may not
always be applicable for all situations. There are conditions that are necessary for
cooperative efforts to be more effective and productive than competitive and
individualistic efforts. Basically, there are five elements of cooperative learning identified
by Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1993).
1. Positive interdependence. (Sink or swim together) Positive interdependence is
successfully structured when group members perceive that they are linked with each
other in a way that one cannot succeed unless everyone succeeds. Group goals and tasks,
are designed in a way that communicates a “one for all; all for one” policy or they sink
or swim together motto. No positive interdependence, no cooperation.
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2. Face-to-face interaction. (Promote each other’s success) Students should promote
each other's success by sharing resources and helping, supporting, encouraging, and
applauding each other's efforts to achieve. This can be done by: orally explaining how to
solve problems, teaching one's knowledge to others, checking for understanding,
discussing concepts being learned, and connecting present with past learning. It is
through promoting each other's learning face-to-face that members become personally
committed to each other as well as to their mutual goals.
3. Individual and group accountability. (No hitchhiking /no social loafing). The group
must be accountable for achieving its goals and each member must be accountable for
contributing his or her share of the work. Individual accountability exists when the
performance of each individual is assessed and the results are given back to the group and
the individual in order to ascertain who needs more assistance, support, and
encouragement in learning. Students learn together so that they subsequently can gain
greater individual competency, making each member a stronger individual.
4. Interpersonal and small group skills. Cooperative learning is more complex than
competitive or individualistic learning because students have to engage simultaneously in
task work (learning academic subject matter) and teamwork (functioning effectively as a
group). Leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflictmanagement skills empower students to manage both teamwork and task work
successfully.
5. Group processing. Group members discuss how well they are achieving their goals
and maintaining effective working relationships. Continuous improvement of the
processes of learning results from the careful analysis of how members are working
together and determining how group effectiveness can be enhanced.
Examples of Class Activities that use cooperative learning:
1. Jigsaw
6. Numbered Heads
2. Think-Pair-Share
7. Team Pair Solo
3. Three-Step Interview
8. Circle the Sage
4. Round Robin Brainstorming
9. Partners
5. Three-minute Review.
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LESSON 14
HUMANISTIC LEARNING
Humanism and Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychology got its name from its belief in the basic goodness and
respect of humankind, an understanding and acceptance of one’s own existence and
responsibility.
Humanism has variously been described as a philosophy, a theory of psychology,
and an approach to educational practice
As a philosophy, humanism is a paradigm that emphasizes the freedom, dignity,
and potential of humans.
Humanists, therefore, give primacy to the study of human needs and interests. A
central assumption is that human beings behave out of intentionality and values (Kurtz,
2000). Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study the person as a whole,
especially as an individual grows and develops over the lifespan. The study of the self,
motivation, and goal-setting are also areas of special interest.
The basic ideas behind Humanistic Psychology and humanism are:
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The present is the most important aspect of the person
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Humanistic theory is reality based
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The individual, merely being human, posses an inherent worth
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The goal of life should always be to achieve personal growth and
understanding.
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Human beings possess the power or potentiality of solving their own
problems.
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Because individuals possess freedom of creative choice and action, they are
within limits, “masters of their own destiny”.
Prime movers of Humanism
Two individuals who have had the greatest influence in humanistic theory are
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow.
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Carl Roger's View (Facilitative Teaching)
The essence of Carl Roger’s theory is that human beings have a tendency towards
self actualization. According to him a therapeutic relationship based on the values of
unconditional positive regard, accurate emphatic understanding, honesty and integrity can
help individuals fulfill their greatest potential. Thus, a person’s learning is facilitated.
The major goal in this view is “to help the individual foster a greater level of selfdirection”, where a person can see a situation clearly and take responsibility for the
situations. (Rogers, 1961).
One of the models included in the overall review of open education was facilitative
teaching developed by Carl Rogers. Aspy and Roebuck (1975) studied teachers in terms
of their ability to offer facilitative conditions (including empathy, congruence, and
positive regard). Teachers who were more highly facilitative tended to provide more
response to student feeling; often smiles, conducts dialogue, use praises, and is genuine
in dealing with students
Abraham Maslow
He developed a theory of human motivation, which holds that needs are arranged
in ascending order: from physiological needs to social and psychological needs. He
placed importance on the potential of human beings to strive for and achieve greater
levels of growth. Maslow believe in the person’s inherent goal of reaching his full
potential and being self-actualized. If this human nature is considered by teachers,
learning tends to be facilitated.
HUMANISM AND INSTRUCTION
Humanistic education is a natural outgrowth of principles derived from
humanistic philosophy and psychology.
Patterson (1973) stated that- “the purpose of education is to develop selfactualizing persons”. The two aspects of humanistic education: (a) facilitating instruction
in a “more humane way; (b) developing affective aspects of the learner to lead to greater
understanding of self and others.
Principles of Humanistic Education
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Humanistic education is student-centered.
Students’ learning should be self-directed.
The teacher is the facilitator of the teaching learning process
Schools should produce students who want and know how to learn
The act of learning is highly personal
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6.
7.
8.
9.
Feelings, as well as knowledge, are important in learning process
The curriculum is not an end, but rather, a means of promoting goals
The only form of meaningful evaluation is self-evaluation
Students learn best in a supportive, cooperative and non threatening environment.
Objectives of Humanistic Education
As described by Gage and Berliner (1991) there are five basic objectives of the
humanistic view of education:
1. promote positive self-direction and independence (development of the regulatory
system);
2. develop the ability to take responsibility for what is learned (regulatory and
affective systems);
3. develop creativity (divergent thinking aspect of cognition);
4. curiosity (exploratory behavior, a function of imbalance or dissonance in any of
the systems); and
5. an interest in the arts (primarily to develop the affective/emotional system).
ENRICHMENT ACTIVITIES
1. Application of Modeling in Teaching Situation.
In Mrs. Domingo’s 2nd grade class, the pupils were working on a Social Studies
project. Mrs. Domingo noticed that at a table with four children, two students
(Pupil A and Pupil B) were concentrating while the other two (Pupil C and Pupil
D) were fooling around. How will you use modeling to help Pupils C and D to
focus their attention at their project by using the two students (Pupils A and B) as
models? What will you tell the students?
2. List some forms of punishment used in public schools. Does the punishment
decrease or extinguish the behavior for which it is given? Give some examples of
punishment being experienced by the students as reinforcement.
3. Cite 3 specific learning situations or examples where humanistic approaches
would be highly applicable and would result to better learning.
Taking it to the Net
1. Read further on elements of cooperative learning and the examples of class activities
that use cooperative learning. Among the class activities described (i.e. Jigsaw etc.) select
two which could be applicable in the Philippine setting (considering culture and values)
and illustrate how you will do these if you are the teacher.
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Websites references:
a) http://www.co-operation.org/pages/cl.html.
b) http://edtech.kennesaw.edu/intech/cooperativelearning.htm.
PERSONAL LEARNING JOURNAL FOR MODULE 4
Date:
Activity:
Reflections:
1. The topic/issue I particularly liked and would like to explore more is ___________
____________________________________________. It has caught my attention and
interest because _______________________________________________________
_________________________________________________.
2. The questions I have in relation to this topic/incident is/are ___________________
____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
3. The knowledge/insights I gained from this module and the activities/were
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________.
4. With this learning experience I intend to _________________________________
_________________________________________________________.
References:
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Gage, N., & Berliner, D. (1991). Educational psychology (5th ed.). Boston:
Houghton, Mifflin.
Kagan, S. (1994) The Structural Approach to Cooperative Learning. Educational
Leadership
Kurtz, P. (2000). Humanist manifesto 2000: A call for a new planetary humanism.
Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books.
Woolfolk, Anita (1998) Educational Psychology
http://Chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/affsys/humed.html.
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