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APEH Unit 8 Notes
19th Century Society: Urbanization and
Intellectual Movements (1800-1914)
Theme: By 1900 much of Europe had become urban
and industrial
I. “Second” Industrial Revolution (last half of the
19th century)
A. First Industrial Revolution had occurred between
1780-1850 – textiles, coal, iron, railroads
B. Second Industrial Revolution: Four major aspects
1. Steel production: steel rails, larger structures,
heavy machinery
· Bessemer process resulted in high-quality steel
2. Oil: kerosene for lighting; internal combustion
engine for factory machines
3. Electricity: increasingly powered cities
a. England built first electric power stations in 1881
b. Steel, textile, shoemaking and construction
industries increasingly used electricity
4. Chemicals: Germany led in photo processing and
other areas such as dyes, soaps and pharmaceuticals;
also fertilizers and explosives
C. Expansion of industry and technology created
growing demand for experts with specialized knowledge.
1. Science and technology became closely linked
2. Professionals: Engineering, architecture, chemistry,
accounting and surveying.
3. Management of large public and private institutions
also emerged as a profession
D. By 1890s Germany became most powerful industrial
economy in Europe (surpassing Britain)
1. Britain’s huge investment in technology early on
meant that it was more difficult to shift to new
techniques of the Second Industrial Revolution.
2. Germany came into industrialization later and was
able to utilize state-of-the-art technology.
· Germany thus led Europe in production of organic
chemicals and power generators
E. Industrialism continued to attract huge numbers of
workers to cities
· By 1900 over half of industrial workers in Britain,
Germany and Belgium worked for companies with more
than twenty workers.
II. Urbanization
A. Population growth
1. Britain was the first large European country to
experience urban growth
a. Over 50% of population in 1891 lived in urban
areas
b. London was by far the largest city in Europe.
2. Population of Europe increased by 50% between
1870 and 1914
a. By 1900, 9 European cities had populations over 1
million
b. Significant decline in mortality rates, especially
among children
c. Birth rates actually fell during the period (e.g.
France)
3. Better medical knowledge, better nutrition and
housing were key reasons
4. Number of children per family fell, though this trend
was more pronounced in the middle class
Name_____________________________________
B. Poor living conditions during the first half of the 19th
century
1. Parks and open spaces were almost nonexistent
2. Many people lived in extremely overcrowded attics or
cellars (as many as 10 people per room)
3. Open drains and sewers flowed along the streets with
garbage and excrement
4. Total absence of public transportation
C. Public health movement
1. Sought to remedy the high disease and mortality rate
that occurred in cities
2. Edwin Chadwick became most important reformer of
living conditions in cities.
a. Influenced by Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarianism: idea of
“greatest good for greatest number”
b. Saw disease and death as primary causes of poverty
c. “Sanitary idea” most important: believed disease could
be prevented by cleaning up the urban environment
· Adequate supply of clean piped water would carry off
excrement of communal outhouses.
· Would cost only 1/20 of removing it by hand.
d. Britain (which suffered a cholera epidemic in the early
1830s), passed its first public health law in 1848.
· Germany, France and U.S. also adopted Chadwick’s
ideas.
e. By 1860s and 1870s many European cities had made
significant progress in public sanitation
D. Urban planning & public transportation
1. France took the lead during reign of Napoleon III
a. Georges von Haussmann redeveloped Paris: Wide
boulevards (partially to prevent barricades). Better middleclass housing on
the outskirts of the city
· Demolition of slums
· Creation of parks and open spaces.
b. New system of aqueducts doubled fresh water supply and
400 miles of underground sewers were built (in response to
cholera epidemics in 1832 & 1849).
c. Cities such as Vienna, Cologne followed Paris’ lead.
2. Mass transportation
a. By 1890s the electric streetcar had revolutionized city
transportation
· Created suburbs on outskirts
· Electricity led to the creation of London’s subway system
in the 1860s and then Paris’ metro in 1900.
b. By 1900, only 9% of Britain’s urban population was
overcrowded (more than 2 per room)
E. Migration and emigration
1. Significant migration to cities from the countryside
continued although migrants often maintained a connection to
their rural areas.
2. Huge numbers of southern and eastern Europeans migrated
to America’s largest cities after 1880 in search of economic
opportunity.
a. Canada and Latin America were also major destinations
b. Jews in eastern Europe fled the persecution of the
Pogroms.
c. In some areas, agricultural challenges forced people to
search for other opportunities.
III. Social structure as a result of the industrial revolution
and urbanization
A. Increased in standard of living occurred by the 2nd half of
Unit 8 Notes/p.2
19th century
1. Gap between the wealthy and working class still
huge
2. This period became the “golden age of the middle
class”
3. In Britain, wages and consumption increased 50%
between 1820 and 1850.
B. Expansion of industry and technology created
growing demand for experts with specialized knowledge.
1. Professionals: Engineering, architecture, chemistry,
accounting and surveying.
2. Managers: Management of large public and private
institutions.
3. Expanded and diversified the lower middle class.
a. Number of independent, property-owning
shopkeepers and small business people grew.
b. Increase in white-collar employees: salesmen,
bookkeepers, store managers, and clerks.
C. Industrial and urban development made society more
diverse and less unified.
1. Diversity within middle class/bourgeoisie
a. About 15-20% of population in western Europe
· Less in eastern Europe (2% in Russia); nobles
dominated business
b. Upper-middle class: bankers, industrial leaders,
large-scale commerce, top gov’t officials
· Employed several servants
c. Diversified middle class: smaller businessmen,
professionals, merchants, doctors, lawyers, civil
servants
· Employed at least one servant as a cook and
maid
d. Lower-middle class (petite bourgeoisie):
independent shopkeepers and small merchants, store
managers, minor civil servants, teachers, clerks, and
some master craftsmen such as goldsmiths
· Grew from about 7% of population to 20% in
1900
· Women worked as department store clerks,
stenographers, secretaries, waitresses and nurses.
o Held more than half of post office and gov’t
clerical jobs in 1911
2. Characteristics of the middle class
a. Believed strongly in classical liberalism and sought
protection of property in constitutional assemblies (e.g.
British Parliament and the French Chamber of Deputies)
b. Gained political influence though increased
landownership that was tied to voting rights
c. Emphasized individual liberty and respectability
based on economic success
· Expanding the family’s fortune was seen as the
clearest means of respectability
d. Families emphasized frugality and planning for the
future
e. Saw family as the foundation of the social order
f. Education and religion (especially evangelical
Protestantism in England, Netherlands and some German
states and Catholicism in France) were seen as extremely
important
g. Strong feelings of nationalism
3. Working class: about 80% of population
a. Many were peasants and hired hands (especially in
eastern Europe)
b. Less unified and homogenous compared to middle
classes
c. Highly skilled workers were at the top of working class
(about 15% of pop.): “labor aristocracy”
· Construction bosses, foremen, highly skilled craftsmen
d. Semi-skilled workers: carpentry, bricklaying, successful
factory workers
e. Unskilled workers and domestic servants (mostly
women) were at the bottom.
· By 1900, over half of working women were domestic
servants in England
· Children comprised about 14% of workers in British
textile factories in 1874.
D. Changing family
1. Romantic love became the most important reason for
marriage by 1850
a. Rising standard of living made it possible for people to
marry at a younger age
b. Yet, economic status was still an important issue for the
middle class, even after 1850
2. Middle class females were monitored extremely closely by
parents
a. Chastity was paramount
b. Middle class boys not monitored nearly as much
3. High rate of illegitimacy decreased after 1850
· High rate of premarital sex but more couples married if
the girl became pregnant
4. Fidelity in marriage was particularly emphasized in middle
class
5. Prostitution: middle and upper class men constituted most
of the customers (married late)
6. After 1850 the work of most wives was increasingly
distinct and separate from their husbands.
a. Marked contrast with pre-industrial Europe where
farming and cottage industry dominated and husbands and
wives worked together.
b. Husbands became primary wage earners in factories or
businesses
c. Child rearing was more child-centered with the wife
dominating the home domain.
d. Middle-class women begin to organize and resist their
second-class status to husbands
· Demanded access to higher education and professional
employment
· Sought repeal of laws that denied women property
ownership
E. Child-rearing in middle-class families
1. Lower mortality rates for children resulted in parents
becoming more emotionally involved in children’s lives
a. High mortality rate in pre-industrial Europe had often
resulted in mothers becoming indifferent to their children (e.g.
hiring wet nurses)
b. Now, mothers increasingly breastfed their children
c. Lower rate of illegitimacy
d. Fewer children abandoned to foundling hospitals
2. Married couples decreased the number of children they
had (especially the middle class)
a. Sought to provide more care to their children
b. This trend continued until after World War II
3. Increase in books published on child-rearing
Unit 8 Notes/p.3
4. Parents now much more intent on improving the
economic and social condition of their children
F. Child-rearing in working-class families
1. Unlike middle-class kids, working class children did
not remain economically dependent on their families.
2. Boys and girls went to work when they reached
adolescence.
3. Young working-class adolescents broke away from
the family more easily when emotional ties became
oppressive.
4. In 20th century, middle-class youths would follow
this
pattern.
IV. Life in the fin de siècle (end of the century)
A. The “Belle Époque” (c. 1895-1914)
1. Increased standard of living in all industrialized
countries
a. This period would later be remembered after World
War I as the “Belle Époque” (the “good old days”)
b. However, better living occurred much more in
northern Europe (Britain, France and Germany) than in
southern or eastern Europe.
c. People gradually enjoyed higher wages while the
price of food declined.
· In Britain, wages almost doubled between
1850 and 1900.
· More money came to be spent on clothing
· Meat consumption increased significantly
2. Increased leisure time resulted along with increased
money to spend
B. Increased consumption
1. Sports attracted increased spectators and participants
a. Sports clubs grew significantly
b. Soccer (football), rugby, bicycle and automobile
races, track and field
c. A huge bicycle craze swept western Europe in the
1890s
d. Increased numbers of women took part in bicycling
and sports clubs
· Women gradually abandoned the more restrictive
clothing (e.g. corsets, whale-boned skirts) for dresses
that allowed more movement
e. The emerging sports culture mirrored the growth
of aggressive nationalism in the late-19th century
· Some Social Darwinists believed that sports
competition confirmed the superiority of certain racial
groups
2. Cafés and taverns enjoyed increased patronage in
cities and towns
3. Department stores grew significantly
· Frequented by the middle-class
4. In Paris, dance halls, concerts and plays drew
thousands of people each week.
C. New inventions marked the era
1. Telephone
2. Automobile
3. Gramophone (record player)
4. Radio (invented by Marconi)
5. Motion pictures
D. Education
1. State’s role in education increased, leading to further
secularization of society
a. Emphasized loyalty and service to the state while
decreasing the influence of organized religion
b. By 1900 in England, all children five to twelve years old
were required to attend primary school. Education was free
c. In France, the Ferry Laws required children ages 3-13 to
attend primary schools; schools were free.
2. Significant increase in literacy
a. Men had higher rates of literacy than women
b. Urbanites were more literate than rural folk
c. Higher literacy rate in northern and western Europe than
in southern or eastern Europe
· 1900: 99% literacy in Germany compared to 25% in
Russia
3. Girls had less access to secondary education than boys,
though schools for girls grew somewhat
a. Families had to pay the cost
b. Education was seen as a means of improving economic
and marriage prospects for girls
V. Scientific Advances
A. Scientific ideas and methods enjoyed huge popularity
and prestige in the public mind after 1850.
1. To many, science became almost a religion
2. People could see how the link between science and
technology improved their quality of life (e.g.
electricity and better medical care)
B. Bacterial revolution
1. Significant in reducing the mortality rate
2. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) developed germ theory
of disease
a. Pasteurization: fermentation caused by growth of living
organisms and the activity of these organisms could be
suppressed by heating the beverage.
b. New knowledge helped reduce food poisoning
3. Joseph Lister developed “antiseptic principle” in
performing surgeries.
· Resulted in far fewer people dying of infection resulting
from surgeries.
4. Diseases such as typhoid, typhus, cholera, and yellow
fever were now under control due to improved availability of
vaccines
C. Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907): organized the rules of
chemistry by devising the periodic table in 1869.
D. Electromagnetism: Michael Faraday (1791-1867)
1. Basic discoveries on electromagnetism in the 1830s
and 1840s resulted in the first dynamo (generator)
2. Applied to development of electric motors, electric
lights, and electric streetcars.
E. August Comte (1798-1857): father of “sociology”
1. Positivism: All intellectual activity progresses through
predictable stages; thus humans would soon discover the
eternal laws of human relations through the study of
sociology.
2. Believed social scientists could help regulate society
for the benefit of most everyone
3. Comte became the leader in the religion of science and
desire for rule by experts
F. Charles Darwin: On the Origin of Species by the Means
of Natural Selection, 1859
1. Theory of evolution: All life had gradually evolved
from a common ancestral origin in an unending “struggle for
survival”; species most able to adapt survived.
Unit 8 Notes/p.4
2. Impact on religion: Darwin’s theory refuted literal
interpretation of the Bible (Book of Genesis)
· Created a crisis in some churches
3. Thomas Huxley became Darwin’s biggest supporter
(“Darwin’s Bulldog”)
4. Social Darwinism: Herbert Spencer applied
Darwin’s ideas to human society
a. “Survival of the fittest”: natural laws dictated
why certain people were successful and others were not.
b. Later used by imperialists to justify the conquest
of weaker peoples
c. Also used by major industrialists to justify their
wealth while so many others struggled for subsistence
d. Spencer’s ideas were particularly popular among
the upper-middle class.
G. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
1. Considered one of the three giants of 19th-century
thought (along with Darwin and Marx)
2. In contrast to the rationalism of the Enlightenment,
Freud believed that humans were largely irrational
creatures
a. The human subconscious (the “ID”) was not
subject to reason
b. Thus, people were not as in control of themselves
as many liked to believe
3. Freud also emphasized that sexuality was a key
driving force in one’s psychological make-up
· Repressed sexual desires would lead to
psychological problems
4. Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis
a. Believed hysteria of his patients originated in
unhappy early childhood experiences where they
had repressed strong feelings.
b. Under hypnosis or through the patient’s free
association of ideas, the patient could be brought
to understand his/her unhappiness to deal with it.
H. New Physics
1. Marie Curie (1867-1934) & Pierre Curie (18591906)
· Discovered the first radioactive element (radium)
in 1910
2. Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
· Split the atom in 1919: postulated the structure of
the atom with a positively charged nucleus and
negatively charged electrons
3. Max Planck (1858-1947)
a. Quantum theory: subatomic energy is emitted in
uneven little spurts called “quanta,” not in a steady
stream, as previously thought.
· Laws governing the universe now seemed
unpredictable
b. Thus, matter and energy might be different forms
of the same thing.
c. Shook the foundations of 19th century physics that
viewed atoms as the stable, indestructible building
blocks of matter.
4. Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
a. 1905, Theory of relativity of time and space
challenged traditional ideas of Newtonian physics.
· Theorized that time and space are relative to
the viewpoint of the observer and only the speed of light is
constant for all frames of reference in the universe.
b. United an apparently infinite universe with the incredibly
small, fast-moving subatomic world.
· E = mc2: Matter and energy are interchangeable and that
even a particle of matter contains enormous levels of potential
energy.
I. Impact of new scientific theories on the European mind
1. Darwinism further challenged the Bible’s account of
the creation of humans
2. Freudian psychology undermined the belief that humans
were rational beings in control of their emotions
3. Impact of the New Physics
a. Shattered the popular belief that the universe could be
easily explained via Newtonian physics. Challenged long-held
ideas since Newton that all particles interacted based on
gravitational force
· Einstein’s theory of relativity now theorized that
universal laws were “relative”-based on the position of the
observer
b. Scientists realized that they knew less about the universe
than previously thought
4. Uncertainty later fed the pessimism of European society in
the wake of World War I
VI. Catholic challenges in a modern world
A. Nationalism in some countries decreased the influence of
the Catholic church.
1. Bismarck in Germany attacked the Catholic church in his
kulturkampf crusade.
2. Nation building in Germany and Italy may have competed
for people’s loyalties to the church.
B. The rise of liberalism in the 19th century seemed to further
distance the papacy from society.
1. Syllabus of Errors, issued by Pope Pius IX in 1864,
condemned liberalism and Italian unification
2. The First Vatican Council in 1870 proclaimed the doctrine
of papal infallibility stating that the pope, in certain cases, was
speaking divinely revealed truth on religious matter.
C. The increased popularity of rationalism and science caused
alarm within the church.
· The rise of Darwinism further challenged traditional
Christianity as science increasingly seemed to answer many of
life’s mysteries
D. Rerum Novarum (1891)
1. Pope Leo XIII sought to permit Catholics to participate in
the politics of liberal states
2. He condemned socialism and Marxism while he defended
private property (capitalism)
3. Yet, he stated that workers should have a living wage and
that capitalists should do more to provide for the welfare of
their employees.
4. He supported laws that protected workers from
exploitation
5. His pronouncement led to the creation of Catholic parties
and trade unions at the turn of the century
E. Decline in church attendance
1. Most pronounced in the working classes and skilled
workers.
2. Upper and middle classes and the peasantry remained
maintained church attendance
3. Increasingly, men were less likely to attend church than
women.
Unit 8 Notes/p.5
VII. Realism
A. Characteristics
1. Belief that literature and art should depict life as it
really was.
2. Largely a reaction to the failed Revolutions of 184849 and subsequent loss
of idealism
B. Realism in Literature
1. France saw the development of the realist movement
a. Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850): The Human
Comedy -- depicts urban society as grasping,
amoral, and brutal, characterized by a Darwinian
struggle for wealth and power
b. Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880): Madame Bovary
· Portrays the provincial middle class as petty, smug,
and hypocritical
c. Émile Zola (1840-1902): giant of realist literature
· Portrayed seamy, animalistic view of working class
life
· Germinal (1885): Depicts the hard life of young
miners in northern France.
2. England:
a. George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans) (1819-1880)-examined ways in which people
are shaped by their
social class as well as their own inner strivings, conflicts,
and moral choices.
b. Thomas Hardy (1840-1928): Tess of the
d'Urbervilles
· Portrayed a woman who was ostracized for having
pre-marital sex
3. Russia: Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) – greatest Russian
realist
a. Fatalistic view of history but regards love, trust, and
everyday family ties as life’s enduring values
b. War and Peace (1865-69) was his masterpiece
· Story of Russian society during the Napoleonic
wars
4. Scandinavia: Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) – “father of
modern drama”
· His plays examined the conditions of life and issues
of morality, often at odds with the Victorian views of the
day
C. Realism in Art
1. Characteristics
a. The most important artists of the 19th century and
20th centuries created art for “art’s sake.”
· This includes the Romantic period
· Rather than depending on patrons to fund their
works (e.g. the Church, nobles) they exercised virtual
artistic freedom and hoped to make their money by
selling their paintings to the public
o This is in stark contrast to the Renaissance or the
Baroque periods where artists were commissioned by
elites who specified what they wanted the art to look like
· France was the center of the art world. Artists sent
their greatest works to the Paris Salon to be judged by a
panel of distinguished figures from the art world.
b. France dominated realist art movement
c. Realists sought to portray life as it really was; not
idealized. Ironically, many of the great realist works
were rejected by the Salon for what was perceived
to be mundane subject matter and crude
artistic technique
d. Ordinary people became the subject of numerous
paintings
2. Gustave Courbet (1819-1877)
a. Coined the term, “realism”
b. The Stone Breakers, 1849 (see right)
3. Francois Millet (1814-1875)
· The Gleaners, 1857: Depicts farm women gleaning the
fields after the harvest (see right)
4. Honore Daumier (1808-1879)
· Third-Class Carriage, 1862: Depicts a grandmother, a
daughter and her infant traveling on a railroad. This is a good
example of how the railroad impacted the lives of peasants,
making it possible for them to move or travel to cities
5. Edgar Degas (1834-1917)
· Laundry Girls Ironing, c. 1884: Depicts ordinary women
performing unskilled labor (see right)
6. Édouard Manet (1832-1883)
a. French realist and impressionist painter who bridged both
movements
b. Considered the first “modernist” painter
c. Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe (Luncheon on the Grass), 1863
· Shocked audiences by portraying a female nude and two
male clothed companions in an everyday park setting
d. Olympia, (1863) seemed equally revolting to the Salon
for its casual nude portrayal of a prostitute
VIII. Impressionism in painting
A. Characteristics
1. Began in France
2. Impact of photography: now that cameras could
accurately capture a subject, artists now moved away
from trying to perfectly capture an image
3. Painters sought to capture the momentary overall
feeling, or impression, of light falling on a real-life
scene before their eyes.
· Focused especially on landscapes
· Paintings were completed very quickly
· Brushstrokes were highly visible
· Advent of oil paints in tubes made outdoor painting
possible (plein-air painting)
o In the past, the vast majority of paintings were
done in the studio
B. Claude Monet (1840-1926)
1. Foremost impressionist painter
2. Impression Sunrise, 1873: considered first impressionist
painting
3. Perhaps most well known for his “series paintings” of
Courbet, The Stone Breakers
Millet, The Gleaners
Third Class Carriage
Degas, Laundry Girls Ironing
Manet, Le Déjeuner sur l'herbe
Monet, Impression Sunrise
the countryside at Giverny (e.g. water lilies)
C. Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841-1919)
1. Le Bal au Moulin de la Galette, 1876
2. In addition to landscapes, he painted subjects in
candid poses and nude figures
D. Camille Pissarro (1830-1903)
· Considered by some to be the true father of
impressionism
Unit 8 Notes/p.6
E. Impressionism gave way to Post-Impressionism later
in the 19th century
IX. Post-Impressionism and early-20th century Art
A. Characteristics of Post-Impressionism
1. Desire to know and depict worlds other than the
visible world of fact.
a. Sought to portray unseen, inner worlds of emotion
and imagination (like early-19th century romantics).
b. Sought to express a complicated psychological
view of reality as well as an overwhelming emotional
intensity (like modern novelists).
c. Cubism concentrated on zigzagging lines and
overlapping planes.
d. Nonrepresentational art focused on mood, not
objects.
e. Fascination with form, as opposed to light.
B. Major Post-Impressionist artists
1. Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890) – Dutch
expressionist
a. In The Starry Night (1889), he painted the
vision of night as he imagined it, not as it really
was.
b. One of his most famous portraits shows him with
a bandage on his ear after he allegedly cut it off:
Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear, 1889 (See right)
2. Paul Gauguin (1848-1903) – French
a. Pioneered expressionist techniques.
b. Saw form and design of a painting as important in
themselves
c. Became famous for his paintings of the South Pacific
where he spent some time
3. Paul Cézanne (1839-1906)
a. Particularly committed to form and ordered
design.
b. Later works became increasingly abstract and
Renoir, Le Bal (Dance) au Moulin de la Galette
Pisarro, Garden at Pontoise, 1877
Van Gogh, The StarryNight
Van Gogh, Self-Portrait
Gauguin, Where Do We Come From? What Are
We? Where Are We Going?, 1897 nonrepresentational;
also moved away from the traditional 3-dimensional
perspective toward the 2-dimensional plane.
C. Henri Matisse (1869-1954)
1. Most important French artist of the 20th century
2. Expressionism of a group of painters led by Matisse
was so extreme that an exhibition of their work in
Paris prompted shocked critics to call the les fauves—
“the wild beasts.”
3. Matisse and his followers painted real objects, but
their primary concern was the arrangement of color,
line, and form as an end in itself.
D. Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) – Spanish
1. Most important artist of the 20th century
2. Founded Cubism in 1907.
3. Les Madamoselle d’Avignon (1907) is considered
the first cubist masterpiece.
4. Cubism (also known as analytical cubism)
concentrates on a complex geometry of zigzagging
lines and sharply angled, overlapping planes.
5. Picasso worked with Georges Braque (1882-1963)
in developing analytical cubism (See Braque’s Violin
and Candlestick, right)
E. Expressionism: In 1910 came the ultimate stage in the
development of abstract, nonrepresentational art.
· Russian painter, Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944),
turned away from nature completely with his nonfigural
paintings. Colors were used to express emotion and
symbolism but not any recognizable form.
Cézanne, Apples and Oranges, c. 1899
Picasso, The Accordionist, 1911
Braque, Violin and Candlestick, 1910
Kandinsky, Composition VII, 1913
The Age of Mass Politics: 1871-1914
Politics in the “Long 19th Century”: 1789-1914
Main Theme: The national state created a common
framework in European politics. Political parties
dominated politics. Increased suffrage and literacy in
western and central European countries during the latenineteenth century
resulted in higher expectations and
demands among the people for government to be
responsive to their needs.
I. The Age of Mass Politics (overview)
A. Ordinary people felt increasing loyalty to their
governments
B. By 1914 universal male suffrage was the rule (female
suffrage emerged after WWI)
C. Politicians and parties in national parliaments represented
the people more responsibly as increased suffrage spread
D. The welfare state emerged, first in Germany, then in
Britain, France and other countries
E. Increased literacy: governments came to believe public
education was important to provide society with wellinformed and responsible
citizens.
F. Governments were often led by conservatives who
manipulated nationalism to create a sense of unity and divert
attention away from underlying class conflicts
· Frequently channeled national sentiment in an antiliberal
and militaristic direction after 1871
II. The German Empire: 1871-1914
A. Government structure
1. Consisted of a federal union of Prussia and 24 smaller
German states.
2. Kaiser Wilhelm I (r. 1871-1888) had the ultimate power in
Germany
3. Otto von Bismarck (1810-1898) served as the chancellor
and was the mastermind behind the government
4. A bicameral legislature was established: Reichstag
a. Bundestag was the lower body which represented the
nation (the Volk).
b. Bundesrat was the conservative upper body which
represented the various German states (länder)
5. German political system was multi-party
a. Conservatives represented the Junkers of Prussia
b. Center Party (Catholic Party) approved Bismarck’s
policy of centralization and promoted the political concept of
Particularism which advocated regional priorities
c. The Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.) was Marxist and
advocated sweeping social change
d. The German middle class was largely left out of politics
during this era. Fearing the growing influence of the S.P.D.,
form.
Unit 8 Notes/p.7
the middle class for the most part gave tacit support to
imperial authority and noble influence.
e. Bismarck saw the Catholic Center Party and the
S.P.D. as major threats to imperial power and he set
about to destroy them, albeit unsuccessfully.
B. Germany under Chancellor Bismarck
1. Between 1871 and 1890 Bismarck established an
integrated political and economic structure for Germany
(while dominating European diplomacy)
a. Unified the monetary system
b. Established an Imperial Bank while strengthening
existing banks
c. Developed universal German civil & criminal codes
d. Established compulsory military service.
2. Kulturkampf (“struggle for civilization”)
a. Bismarck sought to limit the influence of the
Catholic Center Party in light of Pope Pius IX's
declaration in 1870 of papal infallibility
b. Most of the German states in the north were
Protestant
c. The Catholic Party was particularly strong in the
southern German states
· The Catholic Center Party proved too popular
among many Germans to be driven underground
· Bismarck ultimately failed to suppress the
Catholic Center Party
3. Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.): Marxist views
a. Advocated sweeping social legislation
b. Sought universal suffrage and genuine democracy
c. Sought demilitarization of the German gov’t.
d. Bismarck was unsuccessful in limiting its growth
(despite its being driven underground)
4. Bismarck instituted a set of sweeping reforms in
order to minimize the threat from the left (socialists)
a. 1879, a protective tariff was instituted to maintain
domestic production
b. Modern social security laws established (Germany
was the first state to do so)
· National sickness and accident insurance laws
passed in 1883 & 1884.
· Old-age pensions and retirement benefits
established in 1889
c. Child labor was regulated
d. Improved working conditions
5. Despite better standard of living, workers did not
leave the S.P.D.
· Yet, by gaining support from the workers, Bismarck
successfully bypassed the middle class
6. William II (r. 1888-1918)
a. Opposed Bismarck's move to renew efforts to
outlaw the S.P.D.
b. To gain support of workers, he forced Bismarck to
resign.
c. By 1912, the S.P.D. became the largest party in the
Reichstag
III. Third French Republic
A. The Paris Commune (1870-71)
1. In 1870, Napoleon III’s Second Empire collapsed
when it was defeated by Prussia in the Franco-Prussian
War.
2. A new National Assembly (1871-75) was created with
Adolphe Thiers as chief executive
3. However, the Paris Commune, a radical communist
government, lay siege to Paris.
4. After the peace treaty with Prussia the Paris Commune
refused to recognize the authority of the newly created
National Assembly
5. From March to May 1871, the Paris Commune fought
a bloody struggle with the troops of the National Assembly
· Thousands died in the civil war and 20,000 were
subsequently executed
6. Thiers’ defeat of Paris Commune and other firm
measures led France on road to recovery
B. The Third French Republic established in 1875
1. Largely dominated by the bourgeoisie
· France enjoyed periods of economic prosperity
2. A Constitution provided for a republic
a. Chamber of Deputies had most power (elected
by universal suffrage)
b. The president was weak
c. The Senate was indirectly elected
3. Leon Gambetta led the republicans during the early
years of the Republic
· Established parliamentary supremacy (while preaching
equality of opportunity)
4. Reforms
a. Trade unions fully legalized (had been suppressed
at times by Napoleon III)
b. Jules Ferry established secular education and reform:
expanded tax-supported public schools and compulsory
education
5. During the Third Republic the French government fell
dozens of times
· Multi-party system resulted in ever-shifting political
coalitions
6. Challenge to the Republic came from the right
(conservatives)
a. Action Francaise led by Charles Maurras advocated an
authoritarian gov’t with a strengthened military
b. Boulanger Crisis (1887-89): Georges Boulanger gained
support of the military
· Plotted a coup to overthrow the Republic
· The Republic summoned Boulanger to trial but he fled to
Belgium & committed suicide
· Boulanger's fall resulted in increased public confidence
in the Republic
c. Panama scandal (1892): Ferdinand de Lesseps failed in
his attempt to build a canal in Panama while it cost French
taxpayers millions of dollars.
· Public perceived the gov't as corrupt thus reversing
popular gains republicans had made after Boulanger crisis
d. Dreyfus Affair (1894): Most serious threat to the
republic
· Military falsely charged Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew,
with supplying secrets to the Germans
· Monarchists (with support of Catholic church) used the
incident to discredit the republicans
· Emile Zola (the realist author) took up Dreyfus' case and
condemned the military
o Famous newspaper article defending Dreyfus in 1898:
“J’accuse”
· Leftists supported the Republic and in 1906 the case was
Unit 8 Notes/p.8
closed when Dreyfus was declared innocent and returned
to the ranks
· The Dreyfus Affair led to an alliance between
moderate republicans and socialists.
e. 1905-Republicans launched anti-clerical campaign
increasing separation of church & state
7. Socialists led by Jean Juarès gained seats in Chamber
of Deputies from 1905 to 1914
8. By 1914, Third Republic enjoyed vast support of the
French people.
IV. Great Britain
A. The period between 1850 and 1865 saw the
realignment of political parties
1. Lord Palmerston (Henry John Temple) (1784-1865):
Whig prime minister and dominant political figure in
England between 1850 and 1865
2. The Tory Party was transformed into the
Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)
3. Whig Party transformed into Liberal Party under
William Gladstone (1809-1898)
· John Bright, a manufacturer, anti-corn law
advocate, and leader of the Manchester School,
contributed significantly to the development of the
Liberal Party
B. After 1865 Britain saw expanded democracy under
Disraeli and Gladstone (who were political opponents)
1. Benjamin Disraeli
a. Argued for aggressive foreign policy, expansion of
British Empire, and reluctantly supported democratic
reforms.
b. Sybil (1845): Disraeli's novel surprised many by
expressing sympathy for working class
c. Disraeli influenced by John Stuart Mill’s: On
Liberty (1859): influential work on the necessity
to increase democracy
d. Reform Bill of 1867: Disraeli's "leap in the
dark" in order to appeal to working people
· Expanded Reform Bill of 1832
· Redistributed seats to provide more equitable
representation in the House of Commons
· Industrial cities & boroughs gained seats at expense
of some depopulated areas in the north and west ("rotten
boroughs")
· Almost all men over 21 who resided in urban
centers were granted the right to vote
· Essentially doubled the number of men who could
vote but still fell short of universal suffrage.
e. Reduced gov’t regulation of trade unions in 1875
f. Created gov't regulations for improved sanitation
2. William Gladstone
a. Most important liberal figure in 19th century
England
· Supported Irish Home Rule, fiscal policy, free
trade, and extension of democratic principles while
opposing imperialism
b. Abolished compulsory taxes to support the Church
of England
c. Australian Ballot Act (1872) provided for the secret
ballot (earlier Chartist demand)
d. Civil service reform introduced in 1870: open
competitive examination for gov't positions
e. Reform Act of 1884 (Representation of the People Act of
1884)
· Granted suffrage to adult males in the counties on the
same basis as in the boroughs
· Two million agricultural voters were added to the
franchise
3. During the 1880s and 1890s, new groups emerged
seeking to further extend democracy
a. Included women’s suffrage advocates, anti-imperialists,
socialists, and anti-nationalists
b. Fabian Society (1883) among the most significant:
advanced a form of revisionist Marxism
· Sought political democracy and economic socialism
c. 1893, Keir Hardie led the Independent Labor Party that
rapidly became a vocal third party.
· Attracted trade unionists, socialists, and those who
thought that Conservative and Liberal Parties had no genuine
interests in the needs of the general public
C. Between 1905 & early 1920s, Liberal party advanced
aggressive social & economic programs
1. Parliament Act of 1911: most significant political reform
during Liberal party rule.
a. Eliminated powers of House of Lords; House of
Commons now the center of national power.
b. Life-span of Parliament reduced from 7 to 5 years.
2. Foundations for social welfare state created in decade
before WWI (meant to guarantee each citizen with a decent
standard of living)
a. Right of unions to strike.
b. Gov’t insurance for those injured on the job
c. Unemployment insurance & old-age pensions
d. Compulsory school attendance
e. Taxes increased on the wealthy (to help fund the welfare
state)
3. Representation of the People Act (1918)
a. Women over 30 gained suffrage
b. All men gained suffrage (property qualifications
completely eliminated)
D. Women’s rights and suffrage movement in England
1. Initially, women sought to amend marriage and property
laws that discriminated against females.
a. Existing laws allowed men to divorce if the wife
committed adultery but the woman could not secure a divorce
for male infidelity unless physical abuse, cruelty, or desertion
had also occurrred.
b. Existing laws prohibited women from inheriting
property from their parents unless there was no male heir.
2. By the 1890s, women’s rights activists realized that
suffrage was the key to remedying other problems.
a. Argued that men had not done enough to protect women
from exploitation and abuse
b. Many believed that the female influence in public affairs
would serve as a balance to masculine qualities that presently
dominated politics
3. Suffragettes came largely from the middle class
a. Benefited from education, and were exposed to earlier
feminist works (e.g. Harriet Taylor & John Stuart Mill)
b. Many middle class families had servants, thus freeing
women to become activists
c. Working-class women and socialists distrusted the
middle class and worked toward their goals independently
4. Millicent Garrett Fawcett (1847-1929)
Unit 8 Notes/p.9
a. Leader of the National Union of Women’s Suffrage
Societies (NUWSS)
b. Demanded that Parliament grant female suffrage
c. Helped grow the suffrage movement and played a
role in national and international suffrage conferences.
d. She was knighted in 1924
5. Militant suffragettes were led by Emmeline
Pankhurst
a. Infuriated that Parliament would not give females
the vote, even though women in Finland gained this right
in 1906 and in Norway (1913).
b. Along with her daughter, Pankhurst founded the
Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) based
on militant principles
c. Beginning in 1907, the WSPU undertook violent
activities such as destroying railroad stations, works of
art and store windows; and chaining themselves to gates
in front of Parliament
d. Organized parades and demonstrations
· Some men who disapproved attacked female
marchers
e. A number of female militants were arrested for their
activities
· Some went on hunger strikes in prison and were
force-fed by authorities.
o When the public was outraged at these forcefeedings, Parliament passed the
“Cat and Mouse” Act
that freed starved female prisoners from jail until they
had regained their health and were then returned to jail.
f. Perhaps the most notorious militant action occurred
when Emily Davison committed suicide by throwing
herself in front of the king’s horse in the 1913 Epsom
Derby
6. Representation of the People Act, 1918: As a
result of women’s critical contributions to the war
effort during World War I, Parliament gave females
over 30 the right to vote.
7. Reform Act of 1928: Suffrage for women over 21
E. The Irish Question
1. Young Ireland movement (1848) echoed nationalistic
movements on the Continent
2. Irish Question was the most recurring & serious
problem Britain faced from 1890 to 1914.
3. Gladstone had pushed unsuccessfully for Irish Home
Rule.
4. Ulster (Protestant counties in northern Ireland)
opposed Irish Home Rule as they started to enjoy
remarkable economic growth from the mid-1890s.
a. Ulsterites raised 100,000 armed volunteers by 1913
b. Ulsterites were supported by British public opinion
5. 1914, Irish Home Rule Act passed by Commons and
Lords but Protestants did not accept it.
· Implementation deferred until after WWI
6. Easter Rebellion (1916) for independence was
crushed by British troops
7. 1922, Ireland gained independence; Northern Ireland
remained part of British Empire
V. The “Eastern Question”: 1870s-A. As the Ottoman Empire—the “Sick Man of
Europe”receded in southeastern Europe a constant state of crisis
existed in the Balkans: who would control region?
1. Russia's dream since reign of Catherine the Great
was to retake the Balkans and ultimately Constantinople (the
old capital of Byzantine Empire and the cradle of Orthodox
Christianity)
2. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had designs on the
region as well
B. Pan-Slavism: Idea of uniting all Slavs in Europe under
one gov't (Russia)
1. Russia’s military victory over the Ottoman Empire by
1878 put it in a position to dominate the Balkans
2. Britain refused to accept Russian control of the Balkans
and sent the Royal Navy to help Turks
· Nationalistic spirit in Britain came to be known as
"jingoism" (after a popular poem)
3. Bismarck offered to mediate the crisis (came to be
the Congress of Berlin)
C. Congress of Berlin (1878)
1. Russia gained little from the conference despite
defeating the Turks in the war
2. Provisions
a. Recognition of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
as independent states.
b. Establishment of the autonomous principality of
Bulgaria (still within Ottoman Empire)
c. Austrian acquisition of Bosnia and Herzegovina
d. Transfer of Cyprus to Great Britain, not far from the Suez
Canal.
e. Though Disraeli was most responsible for the
agreements, Russia blamed Bismarck
3. Russian hostility toward Germany led Bismarck (1879) to
embark upon a new system of alliances which transformed
European diplomacy and effectively killed remnants of
Concert of Europe
4. (Note: Do not confuse the Congress of Berlin with the
Berlin Conference which in 1886 established the
imperialistic guidelines with which to carve up Africa.)
VI. Socialist movements in the Age of Mass Politics
A. Largely a negative response to industrialism and
nationalism
1. Main goal: advance the cause of the proletariat
(working class) throughout Europe.
2. Saw nationalism as a tool used by the ruling classes
to divert public attention away from social issues.
3. Generally opposed to war prior to 1914 since the working
class disproportionately suffered casualties on the front lines.
B. Marxism led the negative response to industrialization
1. Socialists united in 1864 to form the First International
(Marx was one of the principal organizers)
2. Growth of socialist parties after 1871 was phenomenal
(especially in Germany—S.P.D.; also France, Belgium,
Austria-Hungary)
3. 1883, Socialists exiled from Russia formed Russian
Social Democratic party in Switzerland and it grew rapidly
after 1890.
C. Revisionism
1. As workers gained the right to vote and to participate
politically in the nation-state, their attention focused
more on elections than on revolutions
2. Workers’ standard of living rose gradually but
substantially after 1850 (thus, no need to revolt)
3. Growth of labor unions reinforced trend toward
Unit 8 Notes/p.10
modernization since governments accepted them
4. Increasingly, unions focused on bread-and butter
issues—wages, hours, working conditions—rather
than pure socialist doctrine.
5. Genuine collective bargaining, long opposed by
socialist intellectuals as a “sell-out” was officially
recognized as desirable by the German Trade Union
Congress in 1899.
a. A series of strikes proved effective in gaining
concessions from employers.
b. France: Jean Jaurés formally repudiated revisionist
doctrines in order to establish a unified socialist party,
though he remained at heart a revisionist in practice.
6. Eduard Bernstein: Evolutionary Socialism (1899)
a. Most prominent of the socialist revisionists
b. Argued Marx’s predictions of ever-greater poverty
for workers & ever-greater concentration of wealth in
fewer hands had been proved false.
D. Impact of socialism on European politics became
profound by late 19th century
1. Germany: Social Democratic Party (S.P.D.):
a. Marxist in philosophy
· Advocated sweeping social legislation, the
realization of genuine democracy, and the
demilitarization of the German gov’t.
b. Bismarck forced to institute sweeping reforms in
order to minimize the threat from the left
· 1879, instituted a protective tariff to benefit
domestic production
· Modern social security laws established
· National sickness and accident insurance laws
passed in 1883 & 1884.
· Old-age pensions and retirement benefits
established in 1889
· Regulated child labor
· Improved working conditions
c. By 1912, the S.P.D. was the largest party in the
Reichstag
2. France: Socialists led by Jean Jaurès gained seats
in Chamber of Deputies from 1905 to 1914
3. England:
a. Fabian Society (1883) advanced a form of
revisionist Marxism
· Sought political democracy and economic
socialism
b. 1893, Keir Hardie led the Independent Labor
Party that rapidly became a vocal third party.
· Attracted trade unionists, socialists, and those who
thought that Conservative and Liberal Parties had no
genuine interests in the needs of the general public
c. Foundations for social welfare state created in
decade before WWI (meant to guarantee each citizen
with a decent standard of living)
· Right of unions to strike was put into law.
· Gov’t insurance was provided for those injured
on the job
· Unemployment insurance & old-age pensions
enacted.
· Compulsory school attendance law went into
effect.
· Taxes increased on the wealthy (to help fund
the welfare state)
8. Anarchy
a. Anarchists spun off from the mainstream socialist
movement.
b. Sought to destroy the centralized state
c. Mikhail Bakunin (1814-1876), a Russian nobleman,
became the most influential of the anarchists.
d. Anarchy was strongest in Spain and Italy
e. Political assassinations by anarchists shook the political
world with the deaths of six national leaders between 1881
and 1901.
· Alexander II of Russia assassinated in 1881
· King Umberto I of Italy in 1900
· President William McKinley of the U.S. in 1901
VII. Russia
A. Defeat in Crimean War marked a turning point in Russian
history by fostering modernization
1. Russia lacked a sizeable middle class that promoted
liberalism economically, politically and socially.
a. This was a key difference for why Russia lagged behind
western and central Europe
b. The nobility (who controlled the serfs) did not constitute
a force for modernization and reform
2. Russia realized it had to modernize or it would remain
vulnerable militarily and economically
B. Alexander II (1855-1881)
1. Perhaps the greatest Czar since Catherine the Great
· Perhaps the most liberal ruler in Russian history prior to
20th century.
2. Believed serfdom had retarded Russia’s modernization:
agriculture had been poor for centuries
a. 90% of Russian people worked in agriculture
b. Serfdom had led to peasant uprisings, poor agricultural
output, and exploitation of serfs by lords
c. Serfs could be bought or sold with or without land in
early 19th century
d. Serfs could be conscripted into the army for 25 years.
3. Emancipation Act (or Emancipation Edict), 1861
a. Alexander believed ending serfdom was a key to Russia’s
modernization
b. Abolished serfdom: peasants no longer dependent on the
lord; free to move and change occupations; could enter
contracts and own property
c. In fact, most Russians were not impacted by the
Emancipation Edict (as they instead lived in mirs)
4. Mirs: most Russians lived in communes which were
highly regulated
· Collective ownership and responsibility made it difficult
for individual peasants to improve agricultural methods or
leave their villages
5. Zemstvos established in 1864: assemblies that
administered local areas
a. Significant step towards popular participation
b. Yet, lords controlled the Zemstvos and had more power
than the towns and peasant villages
6. Other reforms
a. Judiciary improved
b. Censorship relaxed (but not removed)
c. Education liberalized
7. Industrialization in Russia was stimulated by railroad
construction
a. Russia had fallen behind major industrialized
Unit 8 Notes/p.11
nations in Western & Central Europe
b. Russia needed better railroads, better armaments
and reorganization of the army
c. Between 1860 and 1880 railroad mileage grew
from 1,250 to 15,500
d. Railroads enabled Russia to export grain and earn
profits for further industrialization
e. Stimulated domestic manufacturing: industrial
suburbs grew up around Moscow and St. Petersburg, and
a class of modern factory workers began to emerge
f. Strengthened Russia’s military giving rise to
territorial expansion to the south and east
8. Critics of Alexander II late in his reign
a. Alexander increasingly turned to more traditional
(conservative) values (realism in Russia replaced
romanticism)
b. Radical populist movement emerged that sought a
utopian agrarian order
c. Intelligensia: hostile group of intellectuals who
believed they should eventually take over society
d. nihilism: intellectuals who believed in nothing but
science and that the social order should be completely
wiped out and built up from scratch.
9. Alexander II assassinated in 1881 by radicals who
bombed his carriage in St. Petersburg
C. Count S. Y. Witte oversaw Russian industrialization
in the 1890s
1. Aggressively courted western capital & advanced
technology to build great factories
2. Resulted in rise of a small Russian middle-class
3. Gov’t built state-owned railroads doubled to 35,000
miles by 1900
· Construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway helped
to modernize Russia; connected Moscow with
Vladivostok—5,000 miles
4. Russia put on the gold standard to strengthen the
government’s finances
5. By 1900, Russia 4th in steel production (behind U.S.,
Germany & Britain)
6. By 1900, Russia exported half the world's refined
petroleum
7. As in western Europe, industrialization in Russia
contributed to the spread of Marxist thought and the
transformation of the Russian revolutionary movement
after 1890 (as industrial workers felt exploited)
D. Despite economic and social reforms, Russia's
economic problems were still staggering by 1900
1. 1/3 of Russian farmland not used; food could not
keep pace with increasing population
· Russia had become the most populous nation in
Europe by the late-nineteenth century
2. Depression of 1899 wiped out gains since 1890
resulting in tremendous unemployment
3. Russia’s plight was aggravated by Russo-Japanese
War of 1905
E. Alexander III (1881-1894)
1. Became most reactionary czar of the 19th century:
· “Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Russification
(nationalism)”
2. Encouraged anti-semitism: pogroms of the 1880s
resulted in severe persecution of Jews (many
emigrated to the U.S.)
· Jews blamed for the assassination of Alexander II
· Thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed;
businesses were disrupted or destroyed
· Many more Jews were killed in the pogroms of
1903-06 under Nicholas II than under Alex III.
3. Theodore Herzl: Zionism -- advocated a Jewish
homeland in the Holy Land as a remedy to continued
persecution of Jews in eastern and central Europe
F. Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917)
1. Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)
a. Russians had established a sphere of influence in
Manchuria and now sought Korea
b. Humiliating defeat of Russian fleet by Japan and bloody
war on land resulted in Russia turning away from east Asia
and focusing instead on the Balkans
2. Revolution of 1905
a. Poor economy and strains of war led peasants and middle
class to demand reforms.
b. “Bloody Sunday”, Jan.1905: 200,000 worker/peasants
marched peacefully to the "Winter Palace" asking for reforms.
Czar not in town. Army fired on marchers in cold blood.
c. A general strike, peasant revolt and troop mutinies
paralyzed the Russia by October and czar was forced to make
concessions.
d. Duma: Assembly created that would serve as an
advisory body to the Czar
e. Granted freedom of speech, assembly and press
f. Tsar retained absolute veto
g. Revolutionaries were divided resulting in Duma
having no real influence
h. Propertied classes benefited at expense of workers
peasants and national minorities
3. Russia experienced mild economic recovery between
1907 and 1914
a. Peter Stolypin: pushed through important agrarian
reforms to break down collective village ownership
of land and encourage the more enterprising peasants
b. After 1911, czar's court increasingly dominated by
mystic monk Gregorii Rasputin resulting in widespread doubts
about the czar's ability to lead.
4. Russia’s poor showing in World War I directly led to
the Russian Revolution
CHART
Age of Realpolitik (1848-1871)
Main Theme: Nationalism became a dominant
force in Western society after 1850.
I. Failure of the Revolutions of 1848
A. Germany
1. Nationalists and liberals of the Frankfurt Parliament failed
to get the support of Prussian king Frederick William IV for a
unified Germany
· Frederick William refused to “accept the crown from the
gutter” and instead claimed “divine right”
2. “Humiliation of Olmutz”: Frederick William IV proposed
a plan for German unity.
a. Austria would accept a plan for German unity only if
Prussia accepted the leadership of the German Bund (which
Austria dominated)
Unit 8 Notes/p.12
b. Prussia could not accept its loss of sovereignty and
stepped back
B. Italy
1. Austrian forces were driven out of northern Italy
while French forces were removed from southern Italy
and Sicily.
2. Mazzini (with the protection of Garibaldi)
established the Roman Republic in 1849
3. Failure of Italian revolutionaries to work together
effectively resulted in Austria and France forcefully
taking back control over Italy.
C. Austrian (Hapsburg) Empire
1. Hungarian forces led by Louis Kossuth went to war
against Austria and penetrated to the very gates of
Vienna.
2. The Austrian army, with the help of ethnic minorities
in the empire, defeated the Hungarians and preserved the
empire.
D. France
1. The February Revolution resulted in the overthrow of
King Louis Philippe and established the Second
French Republic led by Alphonse Lamartine
2. The “June Days” Revolution pitted the bourgeoisie
against the working class and conservatives
(supported by the army) restored order.
3. Louis Napoleon (a conservative) was elected
president overwhelmingly
E. Emergence of “Realpolitik” after 1848
1. Failure of the Revolutions of 1848 for liberals and
romantics demonstrated that strong idealism was not
enough to accomplish revolutionary goals.
a. The “age of Realism” replaced Romanticism as the
dominant philosophy after 1850.
b. A political outgrowth of realism was the notion of
realpolitik: the accomplishing of one’s political goals via
practical means (rather than having idealism drive
political decisions)
2. A new political era emerged where nationalist goals
were achieved step-by-step in Machiavellian fashion
(e.g. German unification, Italian unification, and
Hungarian autonomy)
3. In France, emperor Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon)
would have to cater to liberals in order to maintain
effective control.
II. Crimean War (1853-56)
A. Failure of the Concert of Europe
1. Its credibility was undermined by failure of the Great
Powers to cooperate during revolutions of 1848-49.
2. Between 1848 and 1878, peace in Europe was
interrupted by the Crimean War and the Russo- Turkish
War of 1877-78.
B. Causes of the Crimean War
1. Major cause: dispute between two groups of
Christians over privileges in the Holy Land (Palestine)
a. 1852, Turks (who controlled Palestine) agreed to
Napoleon III’s demands to provide enclaves in the Holy
Land for the protection of Roman Catholic religious
orders.
b. This agreement seemed to jeopardize existing
agreements which provided access to Greek
Orthodox religious orders (that Russia favored)
c. Czar Nicholas I ordered Russian troops to occupy
several Turkish-controlled provinces on the Danube River.
· Russia would withdraw once Turks had guaranteed rights
for Orthodox Christians
2. Turks declared war on Russia in 1853, when Nicholas
refused to withdraw from Danubian provinces
3. 1854, Britain & France declared war against Russia
a. To some this was a major surprise as the Turks were not
Christians, yet were supported by Britain and France who
were Christian countries.
b. “Four Points” included the following provisions:
· Russia had to renounce claims to the occupied
principalities on the Danube
· Navigation in the mouth of the Danube River (on the
Black Sea) was internationalized.
· Russia had to renounce its special role of Greek
Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire
4. 1855, Piedmont joined in the war against Russia
5. Austria agreed to the “Four Points” and gave Russia
an ultimatum to comply or Austria would join the war
6. The new czar, Alexander II, agreed to accept the Four
Points and end the war
· Unlike Czar Nicholas who had died in 1855, Alexander
was opposed to continuing the war.
C. Fighting the war
1. Most of the war was fought on the Crimean peninsula
in the Black Sea
· Over 50,000 British and French troops fought in the
Crimea against Russian forces, seeking to take the Black Sea
port city of Sebastopol
2. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910)
a. British nurse who became a pioneer in modern nursing
b. During the Crimean War more men died of disease
rather than by combat wounds.
c. Nightingale’s “Light Brigade” superbly tended to
wounded men during the war, although fatalities due to
disease remained high.
D. Peace of Paris: Russia emerged as the big loser in the
conflict
1. Russia no longer had control of maritime trade on the
Danube, had to recognize Turkish control of the mouth of the
Danube, and renounced claims to Moldavia and Wallachia
(which later became Romania)
2. Russia renounced the role of protector of the Greek
Orthodox residents of the Ottoman Empire.
3. Russia agreed to return all occupied territories to the
Ottoman Empire.
4. The Black Sea was made neutral
5. Independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire
was recognized and guaranteed.
E. Aftermath of the war
1. Russia was shocked that it had fallen so far behind in
military power
2. Russia began its move toward industrialization and
modernization of its army.
III. France
A. Second French Republic (1848-1852)
1. Constitution: unicameral legislature (National
Assembly); strong executive power; popularly elected
president of the Republic
2. Universal male suffrage
3. President Louis Napoleon: seen by voters as a
Unit 8 Notes/p.13
symbol of stability and greatness
a. Dedicated to law and order, opposed to socialism
and radicalism, and favored the conservative classes—
the Church, army, property-owners, and business.
b. Had lived much of his life outside France and thus
had little political baggage to rally opponents
c. Voters perhaps swayed by the Napoleonic legend
of greatness and stability and desired to have another
Bonaparte in control
4. In return for support of conservatives, Louis
Napoleon had to make concessions
a. Falloux Laws: Louis Napoleon returned control of
education to the Church (in return for its support)
b. Minimized influence of the Legislative Assembly
c. Supported policies favorable to the army
d. Disenfranchised many poor people from voting
e. Destroyed the democratic-socialist movement by
jailing or exile its leaders and closing down labor unions.
5. The Legislative Assembly did not grant Louis
Napoleon either payment of his large personal debt or
allowance for a 2nd presidential term.
· In response, Louis Napoleon plotted a coup to
become emperor
B. The Second Empire (or Liberal Empire)
1. Emperor Napoleon III: took control of gov’t in
coup d’etat (December 1851) and became emperor
the following year
a. Restored universal suffrage in 1852 and 92% of
the people voted to make him president for 10 years
· France was the only country in Europe at that
time to provide universal suffrage
b. 1853, 97% of voters agreed to make him hereditary
emperor
c. 1851-1859: Napoleon III’s control was direct and
authoritarian.
· Strengthened centralized power
· An imperial aristocracy emerged consisting of
wealthy businessmen
· Censorship of the press
· The gov’t sponsored “official” candidates in
elections
d. 1859-1870: Napoleon III set out to build the
“liberal empire” by initiating a series of reforms.
e. Napoleon III’s rule provided a model for other
political leaders in Europe.
· Demonstrated how gov’t could reconcile
popular and conservative forces through
authoritarian nationalism.
2. Economic reforms resulted in a healthy economy
a. Infrastructure: railroads, canals, roads; Baron
Georges von Haussmann redeveloped Paris
b. Movement towards free trade
· French exports doubled between 1853 and
1864.
· Signed a liberal trade treaty with Britain in
1860.
· Perhaps the first time that any modern state had
played such a direct role in stimulating the economy.
c. Banking: Crédit Mobilier funded industrial and
infrastructure growth
d. France’s metallurgical industry rivaled Britain’s
e. French investors financed large infrastructure projects in
Russia, Spain and Italy.
· Suez Canal in Egypt was completed in 1869
3. Political reforms
a. Extended power of the Legislative Assembly
· Members elected by universal suffrage every 6 years
· Opposition candidates had greater freedom
b. Returned control of secondary education to the
government (instead of the Catholic Church)
· In response, Pope Pius IX issued Syllabus of Errors
(1864), condemning liberalism.
c. Permitted trade unions and their right to strike
(1864)
d. Eased censorship and granted amnesty to political
prisoners
e. Supported better housing
f. Supported credit unions and regulation of pawn
shops
4. Foreign policy struggles resulted in strong criticism of
Napoleon III and demonstrated his weakness as ruler
a. Sent French troops to Italy to rescue and restore
Pope Pius IX (troops remained between 1849-70)
· Act condemned by republicans (though supported by
conservatives and moderates)
b. French involvement in the Crimean War angered
republicans and liberals (although much of Europe saw
Napoleon III as the victor in the war).
c. Issue of colonialism in Algeria and other colonies
in Africa, Indochina and Mexico became a contentious
political issue with anti-imperialists
d. Napoleon’s liberal reforms were done in part to
divert attention from unsuccessful foreign policy
5. Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) and capture of
Napoleon III resulted in the collapse of the 2nd French
Empire
IV. Italian Unification
A. After collapse of revolutions of 1848-49, unification
movement in Italy shifted to Sardinia-Piedmont under
King Victor Emmanuel, Count Cavour and Garibaldi
1. Replaced earlier leaders Mazzini, the once-liberal
Pope Pius IX, and Gioberti.
2. Realpolitik instead of romanticism for unification:
Machiavellian approach—practical politics
B. Count Camillo Benso di Cavour (1810-1861) of
Sardinia-Piedmont led the struggle for Italian unification
1. Served as King Victor Emmanuel’s prime minister
between 1852 and 1861
· Essentially a moderate nationalist and aristocratic
liberal
2. Replaced the earlier failed unification revolutionaries
such as Mazzini and the Young Italy Movement.
3. Did not employ romantic illusions of a unified Italy
(such as those of Mazzini) but rather carried out realpolitik
4. Editor of Il Risorgimento, a newspaper arguing
Sardinia should be the foundation of a new unified Italy.
5. Guided Sardinia-Piedmont into a liberal and
economically viable state
a. Modeled on French constitution of 1830: some
civil liberties, parliamentary gov't with elections
and parliamentary control of taxes.
b. Reformed the judicial system
c. Built up infrastructure (roads, canals, ports)
Unit 8 Notes/p.14
d. The Law on Convents and Siccardi Law sought
to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church.
e. In response, Pope Pius IX issued his Syllabus of
Errors (1864) warning Catholics against liberalism,
rationalism, socialism, separation of church and state,
and religious liberty.
· Also a response to France’s secularization of
education during the same period
6. Cavour sought unity for the northern and central
areas of Italy
a. 1855, joined Britain and France in the Crimean
War against Russia (as a result, gained France as an ally)
b. Plombiérès (1859)
· Cavour gained a promise from Napoleon III that
France would support a Sardinian war with Austria for
the creation of a northern Italian kingdom (controlled by
Sardinia)
o Sardinia would annex a number of Italian states
such as Venice, Lombardy, Parma, Modena and part of
the Papal States
· In return, France would get Savoy and Nice
· Austria declared war on Sardinia in 1859 after
being provoked
C. Unification
1. Sardinia-Piedmont gained Lombardy (but not
Venetia) as a result of its 1859 war with Austria
a. France briefly came to Sardinia’s aid in 1859
b. Yet, France soon backed away from Plombiérès
agreement: fear of war with Prussia, Austria’s
strength in military power, revolutionary unrest in
northern Italy, and French public's concern over a
war with Catholic Austria.
2. 1860, Cavour arranged the annexation of Parma,
Modena, Romagna, and Tuscany into Sardinia
· France supported Cavour in return for receiving
the territories of Nice and Savoy
3. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) liberated southern
Italy and Sicily.
a. Garibaldi exemplified the romantic nationalism of
Mazzini and earlier Young Italy revolutionaries.
b. May 1860, Garibaldi and his thousand Red Shirts
landed in Sicily and extended the nationalist activity to
the south
c. By September, Garibaldi took control of Naples
and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
· Although Cavour distrusted Garibaldi, Victor
Emmanuel II encouraged Garibaldi’s exploits in
the south of Italy
· Cavour insisted that Sardinia be the foundation
of the Italian nation.
d. Garibaldi thus allowed his conquests to be
absorbed into Sardinia-Piedmont
4. February 1861, Victor Emmanuel declared King of
Italy and presided over an Italian Parliament which
represented all of Italy except for Rome and Venice.
5. 1866, Venice was incorporated into Italian Kingdom
as a result of an alliance with German chancellor
Bismarck
· Sardinia had agreed to open up a front against
Austria during the Austro-Prussian War (1866) in
return for its annexation of Venice.
6. 1871, Rome captured by Italian troops and became
capital of Kingdom of Italy
· France had just been defeated by Germany in the
Franco-Prussian war and could no longer defend the Papal
States
D. Though politically unified, a great social and cultural gap
separated the progressive, industrializing north from the
stagnant, agrarian south
V. German Unification under the Hohenzollerns
A. After 1815 Prussia emerged as an alternative to a
Habsburg-based Germany
1. 1849, Austria had blocked the attempt of Frederick
William IV of Prussia to unify Germany “from above”
a. This was known as the “Humiliation of Olmutz”
b. Thus, the "grossdeutsch plan" failed: plan for
unified Germany including Prussia and Austria.
2. Zollverein (German customs union), 1734: biggest
source of tension between Prussia and Austria.
· Excluded Austria; Austria thus tried unsuccessfully
to destroy it
3. "Kleindeutsch plan": a unified Germany without
Austria was seen as the most practicable means of
unification among various German states, particularly
Prussia.
B. Otto von Bismarck (1810-1898) led the drive for a
Prussian-based Hohenzollern Germany
1. Junker background; obsessed with power
2. "Gap theory" gained Bismarck's favor with the king
a. Army Bill Crisis created stalemate between king &
legislature over reforms of the army.
b. Bismarck insisted Prussian constitution contained
a “gap”: did not mention what was to be done if a
stalemate developed.
c. Since the king had granted the constitution,
Bismarck insisted he ignore liberals (middle class)
in the legislature and follow his own judgment.
· “The great questions of the day will not be decided by
speeches and resolutions-that was the blunder of 1848 and
1849-but by blood and iron.”
· Gov’t continued to collect taxes even though
the parliament refused to approve the budget.
· Voters countered by sending liberal majorities
to the parliament between 1862-1866.
d. Oversaw a number of reforms that improved the
Prussian military
C. Prussian-Danish War, 1863
1. Germany & Austria defeated Denmark and took
control of the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein
2. The provinces were jointly administered by Prussia
and Austria but conflicts over jurisdiction would lead
to a major war between Prussia and Austria
D. Austro-Prussian War (7 Weeks’ War) or (German Civil
War), 1866
1. Bismarck sought a localized war
· Made diplomatic preparations for war with Austria
by negotiating with France, Italy, and Russia for
noninterference
2. Prussia’s use of railroads to mass troops and use of
the breech-loading rifle proved superior to Austria’s military
efforts.
3. Prussia’s victory unified much of Germany without
Austria.
Unit 8 Notes/p.15
a. The “kleindeutsch plan” prevailed
b. Austria was given generous peace terms
c. Italy received Venice from Austria
E. 1867, the North German Confederation established by
Bismarck with King William I as president.
1. Included all the German states except Baden,
Wurttemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony
2. The federal constitution allowed each state to retain
its own local government
3. The parliament (Reichstag) consisted of two houses
that shared power equally.
a. The upper house (bundesrat) included
representatives from each state
b. The lower house (bundestag) had representatives
elected by universal male suffrage
4. The new gov’t structure gave Bismarck the ability to
circumvent the middle-class by appealing directly to the
working classes (as Napoleon III had done in France)
· Thus, the German middle class did not regain its
influence until World War I
F. Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)
1. Ems Dispatch
a. Bismarck sought to provoke a war with France in
order to further unify Germany and annex Alsace and
Lorraine
b. Thus, Bismarck boasted that a French diplomat
had been kicked out of Germany after asking William I
not to interfere with the succession to the Spanish throne.
· The alleged snub was exaggerated by Bismarck
intentionally in order to provoke France.
c. An infuriated France declared war against Germany
2. Bismarck used the war with France to bring 4
remaining southern German states into the North
German Confederation
· Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony
3. The apparent ease with which Prussia defeated
France sent shockwaves throughout Europe.
4. Paris fell to the Germans in January, 1871: Napoleon
III was captured
· The battles of Sedan and Metz were particularly
decisive in Prussia’s victory.
5. Treaty of Frankfurt (May, 1871): Alsace and
Lorraine ceded to Germany
G. The German Empire was proclaimed on January 18,
1871 (Germany now the most powerful nation in
Europe)
1. William I became Emperor of Germany (Kaiser
Wilhelm)
2. Bismarck became the Imperial Chancellor.
3. Bavaria, Baden, Wurttemberg, and Saxony were
incorporated into the German Empire
4. The German Empire’s government was essentially
the same federal structure established in 1866.
· In reality, the Reichstag had little power as the
German Empire became a conservative autocracy with
the nobility allied with the monarch.
VI. The Austro-Hungarian Empire
A. After the Austro-Prussian War the Austrian gov’t had
to
address national aspirations of its ethnic groups:
1. The Hungarians and Czechs continued to demand selfdetermination, or at the
very least, for a semiautonomous state.
2. Austria’s defeat by Germany in 1866 weakened its grip on
power and forced it to make a compromise and establish the
so-called dual monarchy.
B. Ausgleich (or Compromise), 1867
1. Officially created the Austro-Hungarian Empire.
2. Hungarians now had their own assembly, cabinet, and
administrative system, and would support and participate with
Austria in the Imperial army and in the Imperial gov’t.
3. Results
a. Austria assimilated the Hungarians (Magyars) and
nullified them as a primary opposition group.
b. Also led to more efficient gov’t.
C. Managing the empire
1. Government was not integrated due to differences
among ethnic groups
a. The language used in government and school was
a particularly divisive issue.
· In Bohemia, the issue of whether schools should use the
Czech or German language became a sticky issue
b. Efforts by both conservatives and socialists to defuse
national antagonisms by stressing economic issues proved
unsuccessful.
c. Universal male suffrage not until 1907.
2. Anti-Semitism was profound in Austria.
a. Jewish populations in Austrian cities grew rapidly
after Jews obtained full legal equality in 1867.
· By 1900 Jews comprised 10% of the population
b. Many Jewish business people were successful in
banking and trade while Jewish artists, intellectuals, and
scientists emerged (e.g. Freud).
c. German extremists charged Jews with controlling the
economy and corrupting German culture with alien ideas and
ultramodern art
D. Magyar rule in Hungary
1. Magyar nobility in 1867 restored the constitution of 1848
and used it to dominate both the Magyar peasantry and the
minority populations until 1914.
2. Only wealthiest 25% of adult males had right to vote.
3. Laws promoting use of Magyar language in schools and
gov’t were especially resented by Croatians and Romanians.
E. After 1871, the Hapsburg leadership lost the initiative to
resolve the empire’s important divisive issues.
· Unlike most major countries, which used nationalism
to strengthen the state after 1871, the AustroHungarian Empire was
progressively weakened and
destroyed by it.
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