Download Chey Fregon

As on any continent, and in any society, the geographical and climatic features of
the landscape shape the development of the Indian society and the way the inhabitants
utilize the regions resources. The primary geographical and ecological/climatic influences
in the Indian Subcontinent include the arid zone, the major rivers, the surrounding
oceans, and finally the season of monsoons.
One of the primary features of the arid zone in the northern part of India is the
“oceans of grass” and desert regions that are defining characteristics. The arid zone was
home to nomadic and pastoral cultures, who, like others in different conditions, adapted
accordingly to their habitat. The most notable development from this region of India, is
the advancement of the concept of ground transportation, where water wasn’t available.
“Both human porterage and animals were used to transport goods on land. The animal
changed according to environment. The most widely used were pack-oxen, mules and
asses, as well as some locally bred horses…” (Thapar 49).
While the majority of rivers in the Indo-Gangetic plain have shifted with time, so
do the cities and peoples that have developed and prospered around them. Quite a few of
the rivers in the northern region of India came from the melting of glaciers “which have
also changed the landscape of the northern mountains by creating deeper ravines or
reducing elevations, opening meadows at high altitudes” (Early India, Thapar 41). A
greater part of these rivers dramatically shifted their flow (volatility) causing massive
disaster, primarily floods which often caused difficulties for the people.
Labile Urbanism is the aforementioned frequent movement of the cities and
groups of people, and it shares both advantages and disadvantages in the development of
the Indian civilization. Primarily, it caused the nomadic lifestyle, but it also varied the
ability of the people to adapt to changing conditions, and it caused socialization as the
clans/tribes crossed paths and socialized in trade relations (Lecture). Despite this though
there were many positive aspects to close proximity to rivers such as ability to have
proper irrigation and successful farming, cost effective trade, merchant routes, and
transportation routes which all improved the communication of the people (Lecture).
The coasts of India were vital to the international trade and relations of the people
of India with the rest of the world. The coastal communities often tended to be the
“nuclei of kingdoms that also had maritime ambitions and economies” (Thapar 46).
Similar to the behavior of the rivers in India the oceans surrounding India have changed
with time. The coastal centers of society existed with a reliance on the hope that the
oceans would neither rise and flood the cities, nor drop to the point that the harbors
became outdated, dried up, and left to the elements without a remaining economy of
trade.
The monsoons, or rainy seasons in India worked to be just as influential as the
rivers and the oceans in the Indian region. Since the monsoon seasons are predictable, not
only did the peoples develop a dependable calendar and seasonal system, but the
inhabitants of the areas affected learned how to utilize the heavy rains to the fullest
extent. The normal town in ancient India was based around a dam that would collect
water during the rainy season, and then the townspeople would be sustained until the next
monsoon season. These dam-towns littered the Indian subcontinent. Within each town,
there were areas for wet agriculture near the base of the dam, which expanded into a dry
agricultural area, and eventually grasslands that extended father outwards. The city
1
center, often dictated by the temple, religious, cultural, or travel center, was frequently,
also near the base of the dam (Lecture).
Unlike many other regions in the world, India is more diverse, and it has more
character in one area than anywhere else. The people have adapted to the harsh and
extreme conditions of the arid zone, or the areas the regularly flooded by the rivers and
the oceans, but they have also learned to utilize the lands and climates to the greatest
extent by developing technology, like the dams and water tanks, to assure survival and
stable long term agriculture though both the monsoon and the dry seasons.
Like many religions and belief systems in the world, the faiths in India, both
ancient and modern have evolved with the changing of the world and its people. The
extremes in the religions such as Jainism and Brahmanism have softened to compromise
and allow for the development of Buddhism. This religion has further adapted to
individual cultures from the ancient Indian tradition; primarily Theravada and Mahayana
Buddhism. Despite its deep roots in Indian history though, Buddhism disappeared
(mostly) from India to take root elsewhere in the Asian continent, and the world.
Buddhism in the most ancient Indian sense was a compromise, literally, between
Jainism, a very ascetic and non-worldly religion; and Brahmanism, a very secular and
ritualized religion. It happily brought the ‘best’ of both religions in a practice and
lifestyle that was the reasonable middle road.
As time passed, Buddhism developed into two primary schools, Theravada
Buddhism, which was practiced in Sri Lanka (and continues to be practiced there today);
and Mahayana Buddhism, which was actually derived from the Theravada school of
thought, and is now primarily found in Japan.
Theravada literally means old (thera) school (vada) or “teaching of the elders”. It
is commonly considered the oldest form of Buddhism, and the only established orthodox
school in Buddhism (Tyler 61). Theravada Buddhism has been best maintained through
the preservation of the Pali canon (the primary set of scriptures, which is a collection of
monastic values, Buddhist teachings and the analysis of both philosophical and
psychological values), and the Sangha (the monastic community of monks and nuns)
(Buddhist Schools).
Mahayana Buddhism eventually developed out of the Theravada school of
thought. This new division of Buddhism considered itself to be the “Greater Vehicle” of
the Buddha, while its predecessor was considered to be the Hinayana, or rather, the
“Lesser Vehicle” of the Buddha. Unlike the teaching of the elders, Mahayana tradition
focused on the betterment and assistance to the world and the living beings within it,
rather than the end goal of ultimate enlightenment. “Another radical departure was the
development of the Three Body Doctrine (Trikaya). This saw the Buddha as having three
manifestations. First there is the Appearance Body (Nirmanakaya) which refers to the
historical Buddha, except that he is seen less as a flesh and blood figure and more as a
manifestation of compassion. Secondly, there is the Enjoyment Body (Samboghakaya).
This is the Buddha who appears in his own Buddha land for the enjoyment of
Bodhisattvas. Lastly, there is the Dharma Body (Dharmakaya) which sees the Buddha as
the embodiment of ultimate reality” (Buddhist Schools).
With the passing of time Buddhism began to disappear from India and instead
take root in other areas primarily throughout the Asian Continent. The beginning of the
2
decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent is said to have been when the Buddha
was declared to be the ninth avatara to Vishnu. Through a series of events to follow,
eventually Buddhism was virtually perceived as being a branch of errant Brahmanism; a
heresy to the one of the original defining religions in India. In fact “Brahmans became the
leaders of Buddhism because of their learning, and first disfigured it thoroughly with
ritualism and images, and then destroyed its separate organization of monasteries and
monks with the help of the foreign masters who came into power”(Jamanadas).
Jamanadas, K. “Introduction to…”. Decline and Fall of Buddhism. August 2000.
http://www.dalitstan.org/books/decline/decline01.html
“Buddhist Schools”. 2006.
http://buddhism.about.com/library/blbudschoolsa.htm
Throughout its history, India has been perceived as many things; dark,
mysterious, and separated from the world, being among them. As a layman in the history
and culture of this wonderful region though, people tend to have not considered one of
India’s most important and shaping eras; the Classical Age. The definition of a classical
or golden age differs from culture to culture, and from one end of the world to the other,
but there was a definite classical era in Indian history. Likewise, circumstances at times
in India have constituted a darker area in the ancient periods of India. Like in Europe, the
Golden/Classical age in ancient India was punctuated with peaceful times, the unification
of peoples and cultures, revolutions within the arts, and cultural and social
reorganization. The darker periods were lined with exactly the opposite of all the
aforementioned amazing things (Lecture).
Civilizations and cultures are defined as being in their golden or classical times
when “virtually every manifestation of life [has] reached a peak of excellence” (Thapar
280). For the ancient Indian culture, the classical era was defined by the massive
incredible works in literature (written in Sanskrit), as well as the higher quality and
innovation in the arts as well as the living conditions and constructions of society. India
meets the requirements of being in a classical era through their “innovative attempts
[that] mature into formal styles and the classical form [which] precedes the tendency to
create over-decorative forms” (Thapar 281).
Many historians agree that the classical age began with the arrival of the Gupta’s
to the reign of India. It all began with Chandra Gupta I in 320ce, then through his
marriage to Lichchhavi, through which his son Samudra Gupta was bought on to continue
the line, who had Chandra Gupta II, who’s son Skanda Gupta ended the line.
Skanda Gupta’s rule fell with the arrival of the Hunas. In fact, the Indian renaissance was
in full tilt during the reign of Chandra Gupta II, who was most remembered “for his
patronage of literature and the arts” (Thapar 286).
The most notable evolutions in the period involved the development of the Kama
Sutra, more advanced mathematics; and the evolution of religion (especially in Hinduism
and Buddhism), music, dance, modes of education, the Hindu culture, painting, textile
development, and as mentioned before, Sanskrit literature (like the Brahmanical Dharma
Shastras) and drama. Despite the advancements accomplished “progress in physiology
and biology was hindered by religious injunctions against contact with dead bodies,
3
which discouraged dissection and anatomy” yet, aside from these restrictions the
physicians of the times still managed to excel in reproduction advancements, such as
caesarean section; and then the more superficial medicinal works such as bone setting
and skin grafting were ripened and defined (Middle Kingdoms of India).
The descent to the dark ages began with the invasion of the Hunas, and deepened
even further with the beginning of the Rajput period, which is often agreed upon as the
dark age of India. The Hunas or “White Huns” only began by causing the end of the
Gupta dynasty in the fifth century of the Common Era (Lecture). On the other hand, the
real delve into a darker India came in the ninth and tenth centuries. The Rajput clans
became prominent in India when the Hunas began to fade out of the picture. These
peoples claimed to have a “brahmakshatra” standing, relating them back to kshatriya and
Brahmanical ancestry; which more heavily gained favor of some in India (Thapar 418-9).
Therefore, the Rajputs were preferred by the Brahmanical people, because of their dislike
of the Buddhists. With their arrival, the Rajput clans brought their ideas of aristocratic
life styles and advanced class systems. The vulnerability of the Indian subcontinent led to
multiple foreign invading forces, which eventually split the region into multiple states,
each ruled by their own mini-governments and kings (Jamanadas Ch. 8).
Despite the disagreements among historians about many of the events in the
history of India, most can agree that the classical era in India was based in the reign of
the Guptas. One era that isn’t so clear though is when the darker times began in India. To
some, it’s the arrival of the Hunas, yet to others it is the reign of the Rajput clans, but in a
broader sense, times took a turn into a bleaker age leading to the lowest points when the
Muslims invaded.
Jamanadas, K. “Introduction to…”. Decline and Fall of Buddhism. August 2000.
http://www.dalitstan.org/books/decline/decline08
“Middle kingdoms of India”. Wikipedia Encyclopedia. 2006.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India#Gupta_and_Harsha
4