Download decline of the empires - learning

European History
Austria-Hungary 1870-1914
Austria-Hungary was a multi-national empire created by the Ausgleich or compromise of 1867.
Before 1867 the Empire had been dominated by the Austrian Germans. After defeat in the Seven
Weeks War the Germans were forced to share power with the other major group in the Empire,
the Hungarians.
The Ausgleich placed the Hungarians (Magyars) on an equal footing with the Germans. Each
half of the empire had its own government and control of internal affairs in that half. There were
three common ministries: war, finance and foreign relations.
It was called the "Dual Monarchy". The Emperor of Austria was also King of Hungary. The
Emperor from 1848 until 1916 was Francis Joseph I from the Hapsburg family, the traditional
rulers of Austria. Francis Joseph's personal life was very tragic. His brother had been shot during
a revolt in Mexico in 1867 (where he had been Emperor). His only son and heir, Rudolf,
committed suicide at Mayerling in a lover's pact in 1889. His wife Elizabeth was assassinated in
1898. His heir and nephew Francis Ferdinand was assassinated at Sarajevo in 1914.
The arrangement of the Dual Monarchy worked well until 1918 although there were tensions
between the two countries. For example 1903 and 1906 there was a serious row over Hungarian
demands for increased control over Hungarian units of the army. They wanted to replace German
as the language of command in these regiments.
The major factors that kept the Empire together were:
1. loyalty to the Emperor: Francis Joseph was personally very popular throughout the
empire. He was multi-lingual and spoke nearly all the languages of the Empire.
2. the Catholic religion: - 90% of the population of the Austrian half of the Empire were
Catholic and 60% of the Hungarian half were.
3. the civil service and the army, both of which were dominated by Germans.
4. mutual suspicion among the subject peoples.
The main ethnic groups in Austria-Hungary
1
Germans 24%
* Croats 5%
Magyars (Hungarians) 20%
*Serbs 4%
*Czechs 13%
*Slovaks 4%
*Poles 10%
*Slovenes 3%
*Ruthenians (Ukranians) 8%
Italians 3%.
Rumanians 6%
* These peoples are Slavic
The single most important issue facing the Empire was nationalism. This took the form of
demands for political and cultural equality for all the different national groups in the Empire. The
response of the Germans and Hungarians to these demands was very different.
Austria
In the Austrian half of the Empire, the power of parliament was restricted by the fact that the
government was responsible to the Emperor. He also had control of foreign affairs. The
parliament was elected on a limited franchise.
The Austrians made attempts to give their subject nationalities a share in the government of their
half of the empire. The peoples controlled by the Austrians were the Poles (who received better
treatment than in either Russia or Germany), the Czechs, the Slovenes, the Ruthenians and the
Italians.
The problem for the government was that when it introduced reforms to improve minority
language or cultural rights, it drew opposition from the Germans and vice versa. This made
reform very difficult. There was also a movement among many Germans that wanted to see the
creation of a greater Germany.
The major cause of difficulty for the Austrian half of the empire was relations between the
Czechs and the Germans in Bohemia. The industrialised and prosperous Czechs resented
German domination, e.g. in the area of language. They hoped to see their position elevated to
equality with that of the Germans and the Hungarians. They demanded the creation of a Triple
Monarchy.
The Prime Minister from 1879 until 1893 was Count Eduard Taaffe (of Irish descent). He ruled
with support from a coalition of German, Polish and Czech Catholics and landowners. This was
called the “Iron Ring”.
Taaffe’s government improved linguistic and cultural equality between the Czechs and Germans
in Bohemia. However while successful in the short-term, his reforms caused outrage among the
2
Germans who saw their position of political supremacy being undermined. Nationalist rivalry
between the Czechs and the Germans became intense.
Count Badeni, a Polish landowner (Prime Minister from1895 until 1897) introduced a reform
proposing that every civil servant in Bohemia had to be fluent in German and Czech. Whereas
most educated Czechs (and the other subject nationalities) could speak German, very few
Germans could speak Czech (or any other language). This measure caused outrage,
demonstrations and riots among Germans all over Austria. Badeni was forced out of office. In
1913 the constitution of Bohemia was suspended amid renewed inter-ethnic tension.
There was also rivalry between Slovenes and Germans in Styria and Carniola. A dispute over the
funding of Slovene language classes in a predominantly German town led to the resignation of
the Prime Minister in 1895. Many Italians wished to join with Italy especially in the town of
Trieste which was one of the largest cities in the Empire.
Universal male suffrage was introduced in the Austrian half of the empire in 1907 partly as a
result of pressure from the growing Social Democratic Party. The Emperor hoped that extending
the right to vote would increase support for parties that supported the Empire and weaken
nationalist parties.
Hungary
In the Hungarian half the Magyars monopolised political power more fully than the Germans in
Austria. Nationalities in Hungary- Romanians, Serbs, and Slovaks- were forced to endure a
policy of Magyarisation. The Hungarian language was made compulsory in government,
education, the law and the railways. Teachers were liable to be dismissed if their pupils did not
know Maygar.
Nearly all towns and villages were given Hungarian names even in areas where there were few
Hungarians. Over 90% of official posts were reserved for Hungarians.
The Hungarian nobility controlled the Parliament in Budapest. Out of 400 members of
Parliament in 1913, only 18 were non-Magyar. Tensions were particularly strong between the
Hungarians and the Croats.
By the turn of the 20th Century a further source of concern for the Empire was the growth of
south Slav nationalism among the Slovenes, Croats and especially the Serbs. This movement was
called Yugoslvism. The growth of Serbian power in the Balkans had encouraged this movement.
Many hoped for South Slav unity with Serbia while others hoped for greater political control
within the monarchy.
This movement and the growth of Serbia was seen by both the Hungarians and Austrians as the
major threat to the unity of the Empire. It was agreed that Serbian power had to be destroyed.
When Archduke Francis Ferdinand was shot in Sarajevo in 1914 by a Serb, this was the pretext
needed to crush Serbia. This unleashed World War I and the eventual ending of the Empire.
3
For all the tension between the different nationalities the destruction of the empire was not
seriously wanted by any of the major national groups before 1914. Imperial rule was seen as a
protection for many against a worse oppression. Historians debate whether the empire would
have collapsed without defeat in World War I. However the inability of the Empire to solve its
ethnic problems meant it was too weak to survive defeat in war.
Foreign Policy
Main Aims



To gain land in the Balkans at the expense of Turkey (this was called the "Drang nach
Osten" or the drive to the East) e.g. annexation of Bosnia.
To prevent the growth of South Slav nationalism (Yugoslavism) undermining her
Empire. She viewed with considerable unease the growth of Serbian power in the
Balkans. Serbia was seen as the major threat to the unity of the Empire as there was a
large Serbian minority in the Empire.
To prevent Russian influence from spreading in the Balkans or in the Mediterranean e.g.
Congress of Berlin.
A power in decline since her defeat at the hands of Prussia in 1866. In most European crises
before 1914 Russia and Austria were to be found on opposite sides. German-Austrian relations
were close particularly after 1905. However Austria's relations with the other member of the
Triple Alliance, Italy were poor. This was because of the presence of an Italian minority in the
Austrian Empire (Trento, Istria and Trieste)
The fall of Austro-Hungarian empire
The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 began with peaceful protests in the cities of Pest and Buda,
demanding the imperial governor to accept their conditions of ruling the state. Many revolutions
took place during the same year in Habsburg areas.
The Magyars fought the combined forces of the minority Serbs, Croats, Romanian and Slovaks,
who did not want Hungarian domination. Initially, Austria accepted Hungarian demands for
autonomy, under the threat of revolution in the heart of the empire, Vienna. However, when
Emperor Ferdinand I was replaced by his nephew Franz Joseph, Austrian forces turned against
the Hungarian rebels and crushed them. Archduke Albrecht von Hapsburg was proclaimed ruler
of the Kingdom of Hungary, known for his Germanisation of the population, aided with the help
of
Czech
officials.
Because of many unresolved problems, as well as external and internal issues, reforms were
inevitable in order to save the Habsburg Empire. Large military defeats also forced the emperor
to begin internal reforms. In the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, the emperor struck a
4
deal with the Hungarian nobility, represented by Ferenc Deák, which would bring about a longlasting partnership between monarchical Austria and Hungary.
The Empire was structured into two self-sufficient parts, of mostly the western half of the region
(today’s Austria) and the Kingdom of Hungary. The two territories were ruled separately with a
common governor and unified external, military and economic policies. The first prime minister
of the new kingdom was Count Gyula Andrássy. The Hungarian Constitution was re-established
and Franz Joseph became king of Hungary. The first step in the restoration of Hungary’s
autonomy was followed by the reformation of another state, Croatia.
Hungarian diplomats retained strong influence upon the political state of the Empire, and were
successful in aiding the Czechs and Southern Slavs. By the end of the century, the variegated
political developments of the two regions made a firm political state of the monarchy, even
though unsuccessful attempts were made to turn the dual monarchy into a confederation.
Apart from German-Magyar and Czech-Magyar conflicts, problems within the monarchy
escalated. The non-Magyar population grew larger, as well as nationalistic attitudes of the
Romanians, Serbs and Slovaks. Magyars in the kingdom made up only some 50 percent of the
country’s population, while Romanians comprised some 16 percent, Slovaks 11 percent and
Germans 10 percent. Despite political problems, Hungary witnessed impressive economic
development. The former underdeveloped Kingdom of Hungary become a modern, industrialised
country by the end of the century, even though agriculture still made up the largest part of its
economy. Much of the administrative system of modern Hungary, as well as state institutions,
was established during this time.
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
1600-1923
Ottoman history from 1566 -1792 has been described as ”The Decline of Faith and State.” To
Ottomans, " decline ” meant dislocation of the traditional order; hence, ” reforms " to check or
reverse " decline " meant restoring the old order which had produced the Golden Age of
Suleyman the Magnificent.” At times decline was checked but only temporarily. Decline was not
only slow, gradual, interrupted, lasting rnore than three centuries, but also it was relative only to
its own Golden Age and to the remarkable progress of its Christian European neighbors.
It is easier to describe decline than to explain it. Some developments which the Ottoman Empire
did not take part in gave Europe its relative superiority.
[ 1 ] Its 16th-10th c. commercial expansion overseas enriched Western Europe to the detriment
of the Ottomans.
5
[ 2 ] The West improved agricultural methods while technology and industry advanced rapidly,
all tied to the new scientific experimentation and rationalist attitudes stemming from the
Renaissance and Reformation and culminating in the Enlightenment; only weak echoes of these
events reached the East before 1800.
[ 3 ] Strong, centralized, national monarchies or bureaucratic empires appeared not only in
Western Europe but also along the Ottoman frontiers in Central and Eastern Europe just when
centrifugal forces were weakening the previously centralized Ottoman bureaucratic empire.
[ 4 ] A prosperous,enterprising bourgeoisie on the Western model failed to appear in the Ottoman
Empire to back up the ruler; the wealthy bourgeoisie which did exist was small and composed
largely of either non-Muslim merchants and bankers, who were not acceptable as the sultan’s
allies, or bureaucrats, who were a part of the "establishment ” anxious to protect their own
interests and often resisting change.
The Ottomans were more conscious of the dislocations in their own traditional system:
[ 1 ] Leadership : 17 sultans after Suleyman ( from1566 to 1789)
were, with few exceptions, men of little ability, training, or
experience, and some were incompetent, even mentally defective;
their average rule of 13 years was less than half that of the first 10
sultans. This was no accident! Mehmed III died in 1605 leaving two
minor sons as the only direct male survivors. The elder, Ahmet I,
spared the life of his brother, Mustafa, but kept him secluded in a
special apartment in the harem of Topkapi Palace. The Sitva Torok
treaty with Austria (1606) should have been a wake-up call for the
Ottomans. It was a negotiated compromise rather than a grant of
peace dictated by the sultan; in it, the Hapsburg monarch finally was
recognized as the sultan’s peer, as " Emperor” (Padishah rather than simply King of Vienna.”
Mustafa I’s accession in 1617 marked the end of ”succession by military contest and the practice
of royal ” fratricide,” replaced by confinement of princes in the palace and succession by the
eldest male of the imperial family. Not only were most inexperienced and incompetent, many
were minors under the influence of the Queen Mother (Valide Sultan) and harem favorites,
giving rise to palace cliques and intrigue. For several decades in the first half of the17.th century,
women of the palace exercised such influence that the period is called " The Sultanate of the
Women "
[ 2 ] Bribery, purchase of office, favoritism, nepotism : Promotion by merit, long the hallmark of
Ottoman administration, became less common. Corruption spread to the provinces where an
official would buy his office, then squeeze more taxes from the populace to reimburse himself.
There were frequent shifts in judicial as well as civil officials, with justice also sometimes for
sale. In the mid-to-late 17th c., the great Koprulu family of viziers attempted to root out
corruption and improve administrative and military efficiency. They were temporarily successful
in arresting " decline " through traditional reforms, and in 1663 Ottoman forces besieged Vienna
for the second time. But in the 17th c., the Ottomans were confronted by an extended arc of
6
opponents, Venice, Austria, Poland, Russia, and Iran, often obliged to confront several at once.
In 1699, after defeat by a coalition of all Central and East European powers, the Ottomans
accepted mediation, negotiated peace, and, by the Treaty of Karlowitz, for the first time gave up
territories in the Balkans. The shrinking of Ottoman frontiers had begun.
[ 3 ] Military : The devshirme was abandoned ( just when is uncertain ); sons of janissaries were
admitted to the corps, then other Muslims; and imperial slavery became a legal fiction.”
Provincial janissaries sometimes acted as semi-autonomous local rulers, while in Istanbul they
become a disruptive force, often in collaboration with artisans / craftsmen and students. The
provincial cavalry army was made obsolete by musket-armed European troops, requiring the
Ottomans to increase their standing infantry and equip them with firearms. This required money.
The military fief system was all but abandoned and replaced by tax-farming. The heavy tax
burden was responsible in part for revolts in Anatolia, abandonment of farm lands, and
depopulation of villages; thus the empire experienced a decline in tax revenues despite higher
taxes.
[ 4 ] Economics : The Ottoman Empire suffered from severe inflation, as did all of Europe, as
New World silver flooded in. This, together with debased coinage, fueled corruption. By the 17th
c., Europeans and consolidated their control of new sea trade routes, by-passing the Middle East
and diminishing the transit trade through Ottoman lands. Asian spices were shipped directly to
Europe, and wars with Iran interrupted the silk trade. European manufactured goods flowed in,
undercutting local handicraft products and enriching Levantine merchants. The Ottoman
Empire’s unfavorable trade balance resulted in an outflow of gold, while European states
demanded more favorable trade treaties ( ”Capitulations" ) and were guilty of blatantly abusing
them.
[ 5 ] Intellectual decline--Selim and Suleyman’s 16th c. victory over Safavid Shi’ism so
consolidated Sunni orthodoxy that Muslims in the Empire were not forced to engage in
intellectually challenging and stimulating conflict as Catholics and Protestants were in Europe.
Muslim scholars became intellectually conservative and resistant to new ideas; convinced of the
superiority of Muslim / Ottoman civilization, they were seemingly oblivious to the advances
being made in the infidel West. Meanwhile, the Ottoman religious establishment gradually
became infiltrated by the Sufi orders, producing a new sort of symbiosis which gave greater
strength to conservative religious” elements.
In the18th c. more wars and losses resulted in another attempt at reforms. The Tulip Period (
1718-30 ) marks the first conscious borrowing of European culture and art. During the midcentury interlude of peace on the European frontiers, Ottoman political authority was further
diffused. Provincial notables and governors barely heeded orders from Istanbul. Levantines and
Phanariot Greeks enjoyed enormous prosperity and influence. The Muslim religious elite reached
the apex of their power. In the last quarter of the century, Catherine the Great resumed Russian
expansion southward; her ” Greek Scheme " aimed to put her grandson, Constantine, on the
throne of a neo-Byzantine Empire with its capital at Constantinople. Her first war ended in the
Treaty of Kuchuk Kaynarca (1774) by which the Ottomans gave up the Crimea, the first time
they had lost territory inhabited primarily by Muslims. In 1789, during the second war with
7
Catherine, Selim lll became sultan and initiated a reform program called the New Order, (Nizami Cedid) with emphasis on military and fiscal reform. But Selim’s failure to prevent Napoleon’s
invasion of the rich Ottoman province of Egypt in 1798 revealed to Europeans as never before
that the balance of power had now shifted decidedly in their favor.
The Imperial reforms begun by Selim III were taken up again in the early decades of the 19th.c.
by Sultan Mahmud II. They aimed at curbing provincial autonomy and achieving political
centralization and modernization through Western-style military, administrative, and fiscal
reforms. But European intervention in the Greek struggle for independence signaled the
beginning of the modern " Eastern Question ” (Simply put : Who would divide the spoils when
the Ottoman Empire collapsed ? ). To counter this, the Tanzimat period (1839-76) saw reforms
center around a new concept of justice (adalet): equality before the law for all Ottoman subjects,
Muslim and non- Muslim alike. This concept was fundamental to the prevalent ideology of the
Tanzimat, Ottomanism ( patriotism but not yet nationalism). In the 1850s-60s, intellectuals
known as the New Ottomans” engaged in a liberal critique of Tanzimat policies with emphasis
on fatherland (vatan), freedom (hurriget), and constitutionalism. The Tanzimat reforms
culminated in the constitution and parliament of 1876, but the 1877-78 war with Russia and the
Treaty of Berlin, by which most of the Ottoman lands in Europe were lost and the European
powers laid claim to spheres of influence in the Middle East, allowed Sultan Abdulhamid II to
bring an end to " liberalism” and proceed with reforms under an autocratic- regime. By the 1880s
Germany under Kaiser Wilhelrn had replaced France and Great Britain as friend and military
advisor of the Ottoman Empire, and new ideologies were challenging Ottomanism. Abdulhamid
embraced Pan-Islamism; his opponents, known collectively as Young Turks, were drawn to a
secular Ottoman pseudo-nationalism and some to Pan-Turkism.
The Hamidian despotism was ended by the Young Turk Revolution(1908-09) and replaced by
constitutional, parliamentary government under the Young Turk Committee of Union and
Progress. Their policies reflected a growing sense of Turkish nationalism. But in the five years
preceding World War I, two Balkan wars and a war with Italy, which had invaded Libya,
brought the military element of the Young Turk movement to the fore and resulted in the
domination of the Istanbul political scene by the Young Turk Triumverate ( Enver, Talat, and
Jemal Pashas) . Under their leadership, the Ottomans entered World War I on the side of
Germany. The victors dictated the peace to end all peace at Paris in 1919. With even the
8
heartlands of the Empire partitioned and Istanbul occupied by the victorious allies, the Turks of
Anatolia under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk) rejected the terms of the dictated
Treaty of Sevres. Again they took up arms, fought successfully for their independence, and --bringing to an end the 600 + year-old Ottoman Empire –- negotiated the Treaty of Lausanne in
1923 which granted international recognition to the boundaries of the new Republic of Turkey
9