Download HEOC 100 - Napa Valley College

NAPA VALLEY COLLEGE
HEOC 100
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Janice Ankenmann, RN, MSN, CCRN, FNP-C
Revised 2014
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course requirements ...................................................................................................... A
Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 3 & 4 .................................................................................................................. 7
Chapter 5 ..................................................................................................................... 13
Chapter 6 ...................................................................................................................... 16
Chapter 7 ...................................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 8 ...................................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 9 ...................................................................................................................... 28
Chapter 10 .................................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 11 .................................................................................................................... 36
Chapter 12 .................................................................................................................... 40
Chapter 13 .................................................................................................................... 45
Chapter 14 .................................................................................................................... 49
Chapter 15 .................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 16 .................................................................................................................... 57
Chapter 17.... ................................................................................................................ 61
Chapter 18 …………………………………………………………...……………………… 69
Chapter 19 .................................................................................................................... 72
Chapter 20 .................................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 21 .................................................................................................................... 85
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HEOC 100
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Course Requirements
Janice Ankenmann RN MSN CCRN FNP
[email protected]
Required Textbooks
1. Cohen, B.J. and J.J. Taylor 10th ed. Memmler’s The Structure and Function of
the Human Body (preferably with Student Study Guide).
2. HEOC 100 Syllabus
Recommended: Any Medical Dictionary (i.e. Tabers)
COURSE DESCRIPTION:
The primary goal of this course is to assist the student in gaining a basic working
knowledge of the human body, its anatomical structure, and how it functions.
Student Learning Objectives: the student will be able to demonstrate an
understanding of general anatomy and basic physiology of body systems.
For example: understand homeostasis; know the anatomic path of blood flow; describe
movement through a semi-permeable cell membrane; identify the balance created by the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems; understand the process of aging on body
systems.
EXPECTATIONS:
1.
Students will come to class prepared. Assignments will be completed weekly.
Information not clear to the student should be written down and questions asked of the
instructor during the next class session.
2.
Punctuality and regular attendance are required and are important for satisfactory
progress. You will be dropped from the course for more than one class absence. Plan
to stay for the entire class. Attendance will be taken at each class session.
3.
Quizzes and the final exam comprise the final grade. Quizzes are cumulative—once
material has been presented, it may be questioned on any quiz. The lowest quiz score
will be dropped or if you have one absence, that quiz will be your dropped score.
Grades will be based on the following scale:
A = 92 - 100%
B = 83 - 91%
C = 75 - 82%
D = 67 - 74%
4. Pagers and cell phones are to be OFF during class. Interruptions to the learning
your classmates is unacceptable.
5. Students should log their test scores to keep track of how well they are doing in the class. At
about half way through the class, the instructor will notify you if your grades are not conducive to
passing the course. If you should decide to drop the class for any reason (or at any time),
be sure to file a drop card with the Registrar’s office so that you are officially dropped
from the program (failure to do so will result in a “F” in the class which will affect your
GPA in the future!).
Calendar of classes and assignments will be handed out during the first class. Please
read chapter one to be prepared for the first class.
A
CHAPTER 1
ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion or as a framework for
taking class notes. Use your text, syllabus and study guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define the Key Terms, Ch. 1
Complete Study Guide exercises, Ch. 1
3.
Explain the terms
anatomy :
physiology:
4.
Identify the basic levels of all life:
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
5.
List the ten body systems and what they include.
6.
Identify the functions of the body systems:
Nervous
Endocrine
Circulatory
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
7.
Define and describe metabolism.
1
8.
Describe the various body activities:
Catabolism:
Anabolism:
9.
What is ATP and where does it come from?
10.
Describe the two groups of body fluids:
Extra-cellular fluid:
Intracellular fluid:
11.
Describe the concept of homeostasis:
12.
How is homeostasis maintained?
13.
Describe anatomic positions.
14.
Explain the following terms which relate to body directions and divisions.
a.
Superior – inferior
15.
b.
Ventral – anterior
c.
Dorsal – posterior
d.
Cranial – caudal
e.
Medial – lateral
f.
Proximal – distal
Describe the body planes:
a.
Sagittal
b.
Midsagittal
c.
Frontal
d.
Transverse
2
16.
Explain the following terms which relate to body cavities and regions, and what
they include:
Dorsal cavity
(1)
Cranial
(2)
Spinal
Ventral Cavities
(1)
Thoracic
(2)
Abdomino-pelvic cavity
(a)
Upper cavity
(b)
Pelvic cavity
17.
What separates the two ventral cavities?
18.
Locate the following abdominal cavity regions:
a.
Epigastric
b.
Umbilical
c.
Hypogastric
d.
Hypochondriac
e.
Lumbar
f.
Iliac or inguinal
g.
Four quadrants
CHAPTER 2
CHEMISTRY, MATTER AND LIFE
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and study guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 2.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 2.
3.
Define chemistry.
4.
Define elements.
Give examples:
How many elements exist?
5.
What are atoms?
6.
Identify the following particles are located and their electrical charge:
3
7.
a.
Protons
b.
Neutrons
c.
Electrons
What is a molecule?
What is a compound?
8.
More about water: the most abundant compound in the body.
a.
What does water do, that makes it so important?
b.
Identify 3 properties of water that make it such an ideal medium for living
cells.
9.
Define the following terms:
a.
Mixtures
b.
Solutions
c.
Solvent
d.
Solute
e.
Suspensions
f.
Colloidal suspensions
10.
Define the following:
(1)
Ion
(2)
Cation
(3)
Anion
(4)
Ionic bond
11. Electrolytes
Define:
Function:
When can they prevent cells from functioning properly?
4
12. Ions in the body
Give examples:
Why can electrolyte solutions conduct an electrical current?
13.
What is a covalent bond?
14.
Types of compounds. Define and give an example:
(1)
Acid
(2)
Base
(3)
Salt
(4)
What makes a solution acid?
(5)
How is acidity measured?
15. Indicate the following about pH:
 Neutral pH would be:

pH range of blood:
16. Buffers
Definition:
Function:
17.
Living matter
a.
What elements make up 96% of cells:
b.
What elements make up most of the remaining 4%?
c.
What element is contained in all organic compounds?
5
d.
List the main types of organic compounds.
e.
Describe the composition and function of the following:
(1)
Carbohydrates (CHO) / monosaccharides
(2)
Lipids (fats)
(3)
Protein
 What element do all proteins contain?

f.
What are amino acids?
What are enzymes and catalysts?
CHAPTERS 3 AND 4
CELLS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
TISSUES, GLANDS, AND MEMBRANES
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define the Key Terms, Chapters 3 and 4
Compete Study Guide exercises, Chapters 3 and 4
3.
What is the basic unit of all life ?
4.
What characteristics does it show?
5.
Structure of the cell. Describe the following:
a.
Plasma membrane (cell membrane)
b.
What are phospholipids?
c.
Cytoplasm
6
6.
Define the tem organelles.
7.
State the structure and function of the following organelles:
a.
Nucleus
b.
Nucleolus
c.
Ribosomes
d.
Endoplasmic reticulum
e.
Mitochondria
f.
Golgi apparatus
g.
Lysosomes
h.
Centrioles
8.
Describe 2 types of organelles used for movement.
9.
Identify 3 functions of the cell.
10.
Identify the chemicals in the nucleus and cytoplasm that are responsible for
directing the production of protein.
11.
Where is DNA located?
a.
Describe what DNA looks like.
b.
What is the relationship between DNA, chromosomes and genes?
12.
Describe the appearance of RNA.
a.
What is its function?
b.
Why is RNA the messenger in the cell?
13.
Explain why mitosis is important.
14.
Identify the stages of mitosis.
7
15.
How do cells receive nourishment?
16.
What is the significance of a semi-permeable membrane?
17.
Identify the physical processes responsible for the movement of substances
across the cell membranes that do not require energy.

What is diffusion?

What is osmosis?
o

21.
What is osmotic pressure?
What is filtration and how does it occur?
What 3 processes require energy as they move substance across the cell
membrane?
 What is active transport and how does it occur?

25.

Phagocytosis

Pinocytosis
Why does active transport require energy?
Define
a.
Isotonic
b.
Hypotonic
c.
Hypertonic
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CHAPTER 4
Tissues
1.
Define :
tissue
histology.
2.
List the four groups of tissue.
3.
What is the purpose of epithelial tissue?
4.
Identify the 3 types of epithelial cells according to shape.
5.
What is the difference between simple and stratified epithelial cells?
6.
State the purpose of transitional epithelium.
7.
State the function of various kinds of epithelial cells.
8.
What happens if epithelial cells are injured?
9.
Define glands.
10.
Describe the 2 categories of glands.
11.
Classifications of connective tissue. Give examples of each.
a.
Soft connective tissue includes:
(1)
Adipose tissue
(2)
b.
Areolar
Fibrous connective tissue
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c.
Hard connective tissue
d.
Liquid connective tissue
12.
What is collagen?
13.
What is a scar?
14.
Define keloids.
15.
What function does cartilage serve?
17.
What tissue are bones made of?
18.
Describe the following about muscle tissue:
a.
Function of muscle fibers
b.
19.
The classification of muscle tissue
(1)
Skeletal: voluntary
(2)
Involuntary
(a)
Cardiac
(b)
Smooth or visceral
Describe the following about nerve tissue:
a.
Function of brain, nerves and spinal cord
b.
How they relate to one another
c.
Basic structural unit
(1)
Dendrites
(2)
Axon
(3)
What does myelin look like and what function does it serve?
(4)
What is gray matter?
20.
What are neuroglia cells?
21.
What are membranes?
22.
List functions and locations of membranes.
Types of epithelial membranes
a.
Serous membranes
(1)
Location
(2)
Secretion
(3)
Examples
(a)
Pleuras
(b)
Pericardium
(c)
Peritoneum
(4)
Membrane layers in various locations
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(a)
(b)
(c)
Parietal
Visceral
Potential spaces
b.
Mucous
(1)
Substance secreted and characteristics
(2)
Location
(3)
Variations in structure and function
(a)
Respiratory tract
(b)
Digestive tract
c.
Cutaneous membranes-skin
d.
Connective tissue membranes
(1)
Synovial
(2)
Meninges
(3)
What is the function of fascia?
(3)
(a)
Superficial
(b)
Deep
Membranes around organs
Pericardium, periosteum, perichondrium
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CHAPTERS 5 AND 18
THE SKIN
METABOLISM, NUTRITION AND BODY TEMPERATURE
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
Define Key Terms, Chapters 5 and 18
2.
Complete Study Guide exercises, Chapters 5 and 18.
3.
What does the integumentary system include?
4.
5.
6.
Structure of the skin
a.
Epidermis – layers
(1)
Stratum germinativum
(2)
Stratum corneum
b.
What is keratin?
c.
What is melanin and where is it produced?
d.
Dermis (corium)
(1)
Describe appearance
(2)
Why are papillae important?
e.
Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis )
(1)
Describe appearance
(2)
List contents of subcutaneous layer
Describe the following appendages of the skin:
 Sweat glands
Sudoriferous glands
Modified sweat glands
(a)
Ceruminous glands
(b)
Ciliary
(c)
Mammary glands

Sebaceous glands
(1)
Identify secretion and purpose
(2)
Sebaceous cysts

Hair – describe appearance

Nails
List and describe the functions of the skin:
a.
Protection against infection
b.
Protection against dehydration
c.
Regulation of body temperature
d.
Collection of sensory information
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7.
Other activities
a.
Absorption of substances
b.
Minimal excretion
c.
Vitamin D
8.
Observation of the skin
a.
Factors affecting skin color
b.
Variations of skin pigmentation
9.
List the effects of aging on the skin, hair, and nails.
CHAPTER 18
1.
Describe homeostasis as related to body temperature.
2.
Heat production
a.
When is heat produced:
b.
Where is heat produced and in what proportions?
c.
How is body heat distributed evenly?
d.
Factors affecting heat production and causes:
3.
Heat loss
a.
Where is heat lost?
b.
How is heat lost?
(1)
Conduction
(2)
Radiation
(3)
Convection
(4)
Evaporation
c.
Identify factors affecting heat loss.
4.
Temperature regulation
a.
What is the most important heat-regulating center?
b.
Describe how the hypothalamus regulates temperature.
(1)
Conservation of heat
(2)
Release of heat
c.
How does muscle activity affect body temperature?
d.
Variations in the young and old
5.
Normal body temperature
a.
Variations with time of day
b.
Variations with part of body
(1)
Oral
(2)
Axilla
(3)
Rectal
c.
Compare the Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales.
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CHAPTER 6
THE SKELETON: BONES AND JOINTS
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 6.
2.
Complete Study Guide exercises, Chapter 6.
3.
List the components of the skeletal system.
4.
List the 5 main functions of bones.
5.
Bone structure
a.
Identify various bone shapes
b.
Long bone structure: diaphysis and epiphysis
c.
Describe the 2 types of bone tissue.
(1)
Compact bone
(2)
(3)
Spongy bone
d.
Describe the 2 kinds of marrow and their function.
(1)
Red
(2)
e.
Yellow
Describe the membranes of bone and what they contain.
6.
How do bones grow? Define the following:
a.
Ossification
b.
Osteoblasts
c.
Matrix
d.
Collagen
e.
Osteocytes
f.
Resorption by osteoclasts
7.
Identify variations in bones by age groups.
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8.
What are bone markings and what purpose do they serve?
9.
Describe the 4 projections of bones.
10.
Describe the 4 depressions of bones.
11.
Explain the 2 main divisions of the skeleton.
a.
Axial:
b.
12.
Appendicular:
Define and describe the following components of the skull:
a.
Cranium
(1)
Frontal bone and sinuses
(2)
Parietal bones
(3)
Temporal bones and mastoid sinus
(4)
Ethmoid
(5)
Sphenoid
(6)
Occipital
b.
c.
Facial
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Mandible
Maxilla and sinus
Zygomatic
Nasal bones
Lacrimal
Vomer
Palatine bones
Inferior nasal conchae
Other related bones
(1)
Ossicles
(2)
Hyoid
13.
What are “soft spots”?
14.
Define and describe the framework of the trunk.
a.
Vertebral column
(1)
Number of vertebra in a child
15
(2)
(3)
b.
Bones of vertebral column
(1)
Cervical
(a)
Atlas
(b)
Axis
(2)
Thoracic
(3)
Lumbar
(4)
Sacrum
(5)
Coccyx
c.
Identify the 4 curves of the vertebral column.
d.
What purpose do the curves of the column serve?
e.
Bones of the thorax
(1)
Sternum and xiphoid process
(a)
Manubrium
(b)
Body
(c)
Xiphoid process
(2)
15.
Number of vertebra in an adult
Description of vertebra
(a)
Centrum
(b)
Disks of cartilage
(c)
Foramen
(d)
Spinous process
Ribs
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Attachment
True ribs
False ribs
Floating ribs
Intercostal spaces
Upper division bones:
a.
Shoulder girdle
(1)
Clavicle
(2)
Scapula
(3)
Acromion
b.
Upper extremity
(1)
Humerus
(2)
Ulna
(3)
Radius
(4)
Olecranon
(5)
(6)
(7)
Carpal
Metacarpal bones
Phalanges
16
16.
Lower division bones:
a.
Os coxae
b.
Pelvic girdle
(1)
Ilium
(2)
Ischium
(3)
Pubis/symphysis pubis
c.
Acetabulum
d.
Lower extremity bones
(1)
Femur
(2)
Patella
(3)
Tibia
(4)
Fibula
(5)
Tarsal: calcaneous
(6)
Metatarsal
(7)
Phalanges
17.
Skeletal changes in aging:
19.
What is an articulation?
20.
Describe the 3 kinds of joints and give an example of each. See Table 6-2.
21.
22.
a.
Fibrous/synarthrosis
b.
Cartilaginous/amphiarthrosis
c.
Synovial/diarthosis
Structure of synovial joints:
a.
What holds bones together in freely moveable joints?
b.
What is a joint capsule?
c.
What does the articular cartilage do?
d.
Describe bursae and their function.
Describe how synovial joints are classified and give examples of each. See
Table 6-3.
a.
Gliding
17
b.
Hinge
c.
Pivot
d.
Condyloid
e.
Saddle
f.
Ball-and-socket
23.
What is the function of synovial joints?
24.
Describe the 4 kinds of angular movement:
a.
Flexion
b.
extension
c.
Abduction
d.
Adduction
25.
Describe circumduction.
26.
What is rotation?
27.
Describe the movements of the forearm and ankle.
a.
Supination/pronation
b.
Inversion/eversion
c.
Dorsiflexion/plantar flexion
18
CHAPTER 7
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 7.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 7.
3.
What are the three types of muscle tissue?
4.
Where is smooth muscle located?
5.
What stimulates smooth muscle to contract?
6.
Is it voluntary or involuntary?
7.
Where is cardiac muscle located?
8.
How is cardiac muscle stimulated? Voluntary/involuntary?
9.
Where is skeletal muscle found?
10.
How many skeletal muscles do we have and how much to they weigh?
11.
Why is skeletal muscle also known as voluntary muscle?
12.
What is the basic function of muscles?
13.
Describe the 3 main functions of skeletal muscle.
14.
Characteristics of skeletal muscle:
a.
Describe how muscle cells are constructed.
b.
How are muscles stimulated?
c.
Where is the neuromuscular junction?
(1)
What neurotransmitters are released here?
(2)
What occurs at the neuromuscular junction?
19
d.
Define excitability.
e.
Define action potential?
f.
Define contractility.
(1)
Name the two kinds of proteins that make up skeletal muscle
fibers.
g.
(2)
How does muscle contraction occur?
(3)
What mineral is needed for muscle contraction and where is it
stored?
Muscles and energy
(1)
What is needed to produce ATP?
(2)
What is myoglobin?
(3)
Why is glycogen important?
(4)
Explain the role of oxygen (O2) in the muscle.
(5)
Define oxygen debt.
(6)
How can the body “repay” the oxygen debt?
h.
What is vasocilation and what purpose does it serve during exercise?
i.
Types of muscle contractions
(1)
Define tone/tonus.
(2)
15.
Describe what happens with isotonic and isometric contractions.
Attachment of skeletal muscles
a.
Function of
 tendons

aponeuroses
20
b.
Describe the two attachment sites of muscle to bone.
c.
During muscle contraction, which attachment moves toward the other?
d.
Muscles work together: How do prime movers and antagonists work
together?
e.
Levers and body mechanics
(1)
Define lever and fulcrum.
(2)
16.
17.
Why is the skeletal system considered a system of levers?
Skeletal Muscle Groups
a.
List different characteristics used in naming muscles.
b.
Muscles of the head.
(1)
Orbicularis muscles: oculi and oris
(2)
Buccinator
(3)
Mastication: temporal and masseter
(4)
Muscles of the tongue: intrinsic and extrinsic
c.
Muscles of the neck: sternocleidomastoid
Upper extremities
a.
Shoulder and arm
(1)
Posterior
(a)
Trapezius muscle
(b)
Latissimus dorsi
(2)
Anterior
(a)
Pectoralis major
(b)
Serratus anterior
(3)
Shoulder
(a)
Deltoid
(b)
Rotator cuff
b.
Forearm and hand
(1)
Biceps brachii
Triceps brachii
(2)
Flexor carpi
(3)
Extensor carpi
(4)
Flexor digitorum
(5)
Extensor digitorum
21
c.
18.
(2)
Muscles of abdomen and pelvis
(a)
External oblique
(b)
Internal oblique
(c)
Transverse abdominis
(d)
Rectus abdominis
(e)
Linea alba
(3)
Functions of abdominal muscles (a – d) above
(4)
Other related muscles
(a)
Perineum
(b)
Levator ani
(5)
Deep muscles of the back
(a)
Sacrospinalis
Lower extremities
a.
Movements of the thigh and leg
(1)
Gluteus maximus
(2)
Gluteus medius
(3)
Iliopsoas
(4)
Adductor muscles
(5)
Sartorius
(6)
Quadriceps femoris
(7)
Hamstrings
b.
19.
Trunk
(1)
Muscles of respiration
(a)
Diaphragm
(b)
Intercostal muscle
Movement of the foot
(1)
Gastrocnemius
(2)
Achilles tendon
(3)
Tibialis anterior
(4)
Peroneus longus
(5)
Toe flexor and extensor muscles
List the changes that occur in muscles due to aging.
22
CHAPTER 8
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: SPINAL CORD AND SPINAL NERVES
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 8.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 8.
3.
Nervous System as a whole
a.
What are the 2 structural or anatomic divisions?
b.
(1)
What does the central nervous system (CNS) include?
(2)
What does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) include?
Where do cranial nerves carry messages to and from?
(b)
Where do spinal nerves carry messages to and from?
How is the nervous system divided functionally?
(1)
How is the somatic nervous system controlled and what are its
effectors?
(2)
b.
(a)
What are the 2 names used for the involuntary division?
(a)
What organs does this involuntary or visceral system
control?
(b)
Subdivisions: Sympathetic and parasympathetic
(c)
What does this involuntary or visceral system control?
Define neuroglia and list some of their functions.
23
4.
Neurons and their functions
a.
What are the functional cells of the nervous system called and what are
they composed of?
b.
Describe 2 kinds of nerve fibers.
c.
What is myelin?
(1)
What color is it?
(2)
How is it produced?
d.
What is the neurilemma and where is it found?
e.
Why is the neurilemma important?
f.
Why is gray matter gray?
g.
What is the role of neurons in the PNS?
(1)
What do sensory or afferent neurons do?
(2)
What do motor or efferent neurons do?
5.
Nerves and tracts
a.
Nerve – Group of bundle of nerve fibers outside central nervous
system or within the PNS.
b.
Tract – Group or bundle of nerve fibers within the central nervous
system that conduct impulses to and from the brain.
b.
Mixed nerve – contain both sensory and motor fibers.
6.
Nervous system at work
a.
What maintains the electric charge of an unstimulated cell membrane?
b.
When is a membrane said to be polarized?
c.
What is a nerve impulse?
d.
What is an action potential?
24
7.
e.
When does a membrane depolarize?
f.
When does a membrane repolarize?
What is a synapse and what does it do?
a.
8.
(1)
Define synaptic cleft
(2)
What are receptors?
b.
Name the three most important neurotransmitters.
c.
What is the function of neurotransmitters?
What is a reflex arc?
a.
Trace the pathway of a reflex arc.
b.
9.
What are neurotransmitters and where are they located?
Give an example of one.
The spinal cord
a.
Location:
(1)
In embryo
(2)
In adult
b.
Structure
(1)
White matter
(2)
Gray matter
(3)
Dorsal and ventral horns
(4)
Central canal
c.
Function
(1)
Linking spinal nerves to brain
(a)
Sensory impulses
(b)
Motor impulses
(2)
Reflex activities
(a)
What is a reflex
(b)
Spinal reflex
(c)
Stretch reflex
25
10.
Describe the location, structure and function of the spinal nerves.
a.
Number and placement:
(1)
Attachment to spinal cord
(a)
Dorsal root
(b)
Ventral root
(c)
Dorsal root ganglion
b.
Branches
(1)
Define plexus and describe the 3 main ones.
(a)
Cervical plexus
(b)
Brachial plexus
(c)
Lumbosacral plexus
i.
Sciatic nerve
11.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
a.
Characteristics
(1)
What does it regulate?
b.
(2)
How are the sensory nerves grouped?
(3)
How are the motor (efferent) neurons grouped?
(a)
What are the 2 motor neurons called and where are they
located?
(b)
What is the function of ganglia?
(4)
Define the 3 names used for the sympathetic pathways:
(a)
Sympathetic nervous system
(b)
Thoracolumbar
(c)
Adrenergic
(d)
What are sympathetic chains?
(5)
Define the 2 names used for the parasympathetic paths:
(a)
Parasympathetic nervous system
(b)
Craniosacral
(c)
Cholinergic
Functions of ANS
(1)
What are some of the main functions of the ANS?
(2)
List the fight-or-flight response activities of the sympathetic
nervous system.
(3)
What is the major role of the parasympathetic nervous system?
26
CHAPTER 9
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: THE BRAIN AND CRANIAL NERVES
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 9.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 9.
3.
The Brain and Its Protective Structures
a.
b.
c.
Identify the main parts of the brain.
(1)
Cerebrum
(a)
Cerebral hemispheres
(b)
Longitudinal fissure
(2)
Diencephalon
(3)
Brainstem
(a)
Midbrain
(b)
Pons
(c)
Medulla oblongata
(4)
Cerebellum
Coverings of brain and spinal cord
(1)
Define:
(a)
Meninges
(b)
Dura mater
(c)
Arachnoid
(d)
Pia mater
Describe the appearance of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
(1)
Where is it found?
(2)
Identify the functions of CSF.
(3)
Where is it formed?
27
4.
Divisions of the brain:
a.
5.
Cerebral Hemispheres: name the 5 lobes
(1)
Describe the appearance of the cerebral cortex.
(a)
Gyri
(b)
Sulci:
(2)
What is the corpus callosum, where is it located and what does it
do?
(3)
Basal ganglia: location
(a)
What does it regulate?
(b)
What neurotransmitter is secreted here?
(4)
Identify the functions of the gray matter. (cerebral cortex)
(a)
Receives and analyzes impulses
(b)
Stores info (memory)
(c)
Thought processes occur:
(d)
Conscious deliberation
Functions of the lobes of the cerebral cortex
a.
Frontal lobe
b.
Parietal lobe
c.
Temporal lobe
d.
Occipital lobe
6.
Communication areas
a.
Auditory
b.
Motor
c.
Visual
7.
Memory and learning
a.
Short term
b.
Long term
c.
What are fibrils and what do they do?
8.
The diencephalons (interbrain)
a.
Thalamus
(1)
What occurs here?
(2)
What is its role?
28
b.
9.
Hypothalamus
(1)
Location:
(2)
Controls what functions?
Limbic system
a.
Identify all functions.
b.
What is the reticular formation?
c.
What is the limbic system’s importance?
10.
Brain stem:
a.
Midbrain
b.
Pons
c.
Medulla oblongata
(1)
Respiratory center
(2)
Cardiac center
(3)
Vasomotor center
11.
Cerebellum
a.
Describe the 3 functions.
12.
Brain studies: define the following:
a.
C.T.
b.
M.R.I.
c.
P.E.T.
d.
E.E.G.
13.
Cranial Nerves
a.
Where are they located and how are they labeled?
b.
General functions of cranial nerves:
(1)
What are the 4 categories of messages?
c.
Names and functions of cranial nerves:
(1)
What are mixed nerves?
(2)
14.
List the names of the cranial nerves and what they do.
Effects of aging on the nervous system:
29
CHAPTER 10
THE SENSORY SYSTEM
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 10.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 10.
3.
How does the sensory system protect us?
4.
What is a receptor? Identify difference types.
5.
List the senses:
a.
Special
b.
6.
General
The eye
a.
How is the eye protected?
(1)
What does the conjunctiva produce?
(2)
What is the function of tears?
(3)
Where is the nasolacrimal duct?
b.
Coats of the eyeball
(1)
Sclera
(2)
Choroid
(3)
Retina
(a)
Rods
(b)
Cones
c.
Pathway of light rays and refraction
(1)
Describe the process of refraction.
30
(2)
d.
List and describe the refracting parts (media) of the eye.
(a)
Cornea
(b)
Aqueous humor
(c)
Crystalline lens
(d)
Vitreous body
Function of the retina
(1)
Describe the function of rods. What is dark adaptation?
(2)
Describe the function of cones.
(a)
(b)
(3)
e.
What is the fovea centralis?
How many types of cones exist?
How is information from the rods and cones transferred to
the brain?
Muscles of the eye.
(1)
Extrinsic muscles: what is their function?
(2)
Intrinsic muscles
(a)
Iris-pupil
(b)
Ciliary muscle
(3)
What is the purpose of the iris?
(4)
What is dilation?
(5)
When does the pupil change size?
(6)
What function does the ciliary body and suspensory ligaments
provide?
(7)
Define the process of accommodation.
(8)
Define presbyopia.
31
f.
Nerve supply to the eye
(1)
What sensory nerves supply the eye?
(a)
Describe the function of the optic nerve.
(b)
7.
(2)
What is the function of the ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal
nerve?
(3)
What 3 motor nerves innervate the eye?
Describe the three main sections of the ear:
a.
Outer ear
(1)
Pinna or auricle
(2)
External auditory canal (meatus)
(3)
Ceruminous glands
(4)
Tympanic membrane
b.
Middle ear
(1)
Ossicles (location and function)
(a)
Malleus (hammer)
(b)
Incus (anvil)
(c)
Stapes (stirrups)
(d)
Oval window
(2)
c.
8.
Eustachian tube: location and function
Inner ear
(1)
Vestibule
(2)
Semicircular canals
(3)
Cochlea
(4)
Perilymph
(5)
Membraneous labyrinth-endolymph
What is the organ of hearing called?
(a)
How do we hear?
(b)
9.
What is the optic disk?
What cranial nerve is located here?
Where are the equilibrium receptors located?
(a)
Structure:
(b)
Function:
(c)
What nerve fibers are found here?
32
8.
Other special sense organs: respond to chemical stimuli
a.
Sense of taste
(1)
Taste buds-taste receptors
Sweet:
Sour:
Salty:
Bitter:
b.
Sense of smell
(1)
Location and implication of location
(2)
9.
General senses: scattered throughout body
a.
Sense of touch
(1)
Tactile corpuscles—touch receptors
(2)
Where are they found?
b.
Sense of pressure
c.
Sense of temperature
d.
Sense of position
e.
10.
How do these impulses (taste and smell) travel to the brain?
(1)
What are proprioceptors and where are they located?
(2)
What other sensory organ assists them?
(3)
Where is this information and impulse coordinated?
Sense of pain
(1)
How important is the sense of pain?
(2)
Where are receptors for pain found?
(3)
Describe the 2 pathways of transmission.
Sensory Adaptation: define
33
CHAPTER 11
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM: GLANDS AND HORMONES
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 11.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 11.
3.
Name the 2 controlling and coordinating systems of the body and how they work.
4.
Define hormone.
a.
Where are they released?
b.
What body processes do hormones regulate?
c.
What is a target tissue?
d.
Describe the 2 chemical categories that make up hormones:
e.
5.
(1)
Amino acid compounds
(2)
Steroids
How is hormone secretion regulated?
The pituitary gland (hypophysis)
a.
Where is it located?
b.
Identify the 2 parts of the pituitary.
c.
Why is it called the master gland?
d.
What controls the pituitary?
e.
Define releasing hormone and where it comes from.
f.
Posterior pituitary hormones produced in the hypothalamus and stored in
the posterior pituitary:
34
g.
h.
Hormones of the anterior pituitary: describe function:
(1)
Growth hormone (GH)/somatotropin
(2)
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)/thyrotropin
(3)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
(4)
Prolactin
(5)
Gonadotropins
(a)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
7.
Leutinizing hormone (LH)
(c)
Interstitial cell-stimulating hormone (ICSH)
Hormones of the posterior lobe (See 6.f.)
(1)
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
(2)
6.
(b)
Oxytocin
Describe the structure and location of the thyroid gland.
a.
List the 2 hormones produced in the thyroid gland.
b.
Explain the principle function of the thyroid hormones.
c.
Why is iodine important to this gland?
Describe the structure and location of the parathyroid glands.
a.
Name the hormone secreted by the parathyroid.
b.
What is the major function?
c.
Name 3 substances that regulate calcium metabolism and what they do.
(1)
PTH
(2)
Calcitonin
(3)
Hydroxycholecalciferol
35
8.
Describe the structure and location of the adrenal glands.
a.
b.
9.
10.
11.
Name the principal hormones produced by the medulla.
(1)
What stimulates their release?
(2)
What effects do they produce?
Describe the 3 main groups of hormones produced by the adrenal cortex
and their specific functions.
(1)
Glucocorticoids – cortisol (hydrocortisone)
(2)
Mineralcorticoids – aldosterone
(3)
Sex hormones
The Pancreas
a.
Where are the islets of Langerhans located and what is their function?
(endocrine function)
b.
What is the pancreas’ exocrine function?
c.
What does insulin do?
d.
Where is glucagon produced and what is it’s action?
The sex glands
a.
Define secondary sex characteristics and give examples.
b.
Name the male androgen.
c.
Name the female androgens.
Thymus gland
a.
Location:
b.
Role and hormone secreted
36
12.
Pineal body
a.
Location:
b.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Role and hormone secreted
Other hormone-producing tissues
a.
Stomach and intestines
b.
Kidney
c.
Atria of heart
d.
Placenta
Prostaglandins: where are they produced?
a.
Name various functions of prostaglandins.
b.
Overproduction
Stress
a.
Define stress as used in the field of medicine.
b.
Review how the body responds and copes with stress.
c.
Describe the relationship between hormone production and stress.
Effects of aging
a.
Changes that occur
b.
Diabetes Mellitus
37
CHAPTER 12
THE BLOOD
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
Define Key terms, Chapter 12.
2.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 12.
3.
Why is blood classified as a connective tissue?
4.
Why does the color vary?
5.
What is an average blood volume and how much does it weigh?
6.
Functions:
a.
Transportation
(1)
What substances are carried by the blood TO the body?
(2)
7.
What substances are carried by the blood away FROM the body?
b.
Regulation: list and describe the blood’s 3 regulatory roles.
c.
Protection: list and describe the blood’s 2 protective roles.
Define and describe the following constituents of blood:
a.
Two main components
b.
c.
Formed elements
(1)
Erythrocytes (RBC)
(2)
Leukocytes (WBC)
(3)
Platelets or thrombocytes
Blood plasma
(1)
Percent of total volume of blood
(2)
Percent of plasma that is water
38
d.
(3)
Second most abundant material in plasma after water
(4)
List the main proteins contained in plasma
(5)
List 3 nutrients contained in plasma
(6)
List electrolytes in plasma and their functions
Describe and explain the function of the following formed elements:
(1)
Erythrocytes
(a)
Hemoglobin
(2)
(3)
(b)
Carbon dioxide
(c)
Carbon monoxide
(d)
Normal range
(e)
Production stimulated by:
Leukocytes
(a)
Describe appearance
(b)
Normal range
(c)
List granulocytes
i.
Neutrophils
ii.
Eosinophils
iii.
Basophils
(d)
List agranulocytes
i.
Lymphocytes
ii.
Monocytes
(e)
What is the most important function of leukocytes?
(f)
Describe phagocytosis: See Fig. 12-2
(g)
Define pus.
Platelets or thrombocytes
(a)
Appearance and normal range
(b)
Essential role
39
8.
e.
Describe the origin of the formed blood elements.
f.
Life span of RBC’s, WBC’s and platelets
Define the process of hemostasis.
a.
b.
9.
Describe the 3 events that occur in maintaining hemostasis:
(1)
Contraction
(2)
Platelet plug
(3)
Blood clot
Blood clotting
(1)
How are procoagulants and anticoagulants related?
(2)
How many clotting factors are there?
(3)
What is the final step in the clotting process?
(4)
When does blood clot?
Blood typing and transfusions
a.
Define the following:
(1)
Hemorrhage
(2)
Transfusion
(a)
What danger is involved in giving one’s blood to another?
(b)
Define hemolyze. (hemolysis)
b.
What are antigens?
c.
Identify the antigens that are most likely to cause a reaction.
40
d.
Name the 4 blood types.
(1)
What do these letters represent?
(2)
What does “O” mean?
e.
Define agglutination.
f.
Percent of white population with O blood type?
(1)
Why are they the universal donor?
(2)
g.
10.
Who are the universal recipients?
RH factor
(1)
Percent of population RH positive?
(2)
Percent of population RH negative?
(3)
What situation during pregnancy may be dangerous?
(4)
Role of Rho-Gam?
Blood studies
a.
Define hematocrit.
(1)
(2)
Range for men:
Range for women:
b.
Normal range of hemoglobin?
c.
Blood cell counts: normal ranges
(1)
RBC
(2)
WBC
(3)
Platelets
d.
Blood slide (smear)
(1)
Complete blood count (CBC)
(a)
What is a differential white count?
(b)
Why is it important?
Blood chemistry tests
e.
41
f.
(1)
List substances in the blood that can be tested.
(2)
Can enzymes be tested?
(3)
What is hyperglycemia?
(4)
What is a glucose tolerance test (GTT)?
Coagulation studies
(1)
How many clotting factors are there?
(2)
List names of coagulation tests.
42
CHAPTER 13
THE HEART
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 13.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 13.
3.
What is circulation and how is it accomplished?
4.
Describe the appearance of the heart.
5.
What is the average rate of contractions/strokes?
6.
Structure of the heart
a.
Layers of wall
(1)
Endocardium
(2)
Myocardium
(3)
Epicardium
(a)
Pericardium
(b)
Pericardial sac
b.
Special features/characteristics
(1)
Striations
(2)
Intercalated disks
(3)
Branching
c.
Two hearts and a partition
(1)
Describe the pulmonary circuit.
(2)
Describe the systemic circuit.
43
(3)
Septum
(a)
(b)
(4)
d.
e.
Why can it be said that we have 2 hearts?
Four chambers: 2 receiving and 2 pumping
(1)
Right atrium
(2)
Right ventricle
(3)
Left atrium
(4)
Left ventricle
(5)
Apex
Four valves: 2 entrance and 2 exit
(1)
(2)
Entrance valves
(a)
R atrioventricular valve (tricuspid)
(b)
L atrioventricular or mitral valve (bicuspid)
(c)
Chordae tendineae
Exit valves
(a)
Pulmonic valve (semilunar)
(b)
f.
Interatrial
Interventricular
Aortic valve (semilunar)
Blood supply to the myocardium
(1)
Why does the myocardium need its’ own blood vessels?
44
(2)
Coronary arteries (right and left)
(a)
Where do they originate?
(b)
7.
What do they do?
Function of the heart
a.
Work of the heart
(1)
Cardiac cycle
(a)
Systole
(b)
(2)
b.
c.
Diastole
Define cardiac output (CO).
(a)
How is it determined?
(b)
What is stroke volume?
Conduction system
(1)
Nodes
(a)
Sinoatrial node (SA node)
(b)
Atrioventricular node (AV node)
(c)
Atrioventricular bundle or bundle of HIS
i.
Right and left bundle branches
ii.
Purkinje fibers
(2)
Where is the pacemaker of the heart?
(3)
Trace the flow of an electrical impulse through the conduction
system.
(4)
What does the term sinus rhythm mean?
Control of heart rate
(1)
Effect of sympathetic stimulation
(2)
Effect of parasympathetic stimulation
(3)
Other factors affecting heart rate
45
d.
e.
Variations in heart rates
(1)
Bradycardia
(2)
Tachycardia
(3)
Sinus arrhythmia
(4)
Premature beats
Heart sounds and murmurs
(1)
Describe normal sounds
(2)
What produces these sounds?
(3)
Define murmur.
(a)
8.
9.
What causes a murmur?
State the effects of aging on the heart.
Heart studies
Briefly describe the use of the following cardiac diagnostic
instruments/procedures.
a.
Stethescope
b.
ECG (EKG)
c.
Cardiac catheterization
d.
Ultrasound cardiography (echocardiography)
46
CHAPTER 14
BLOOD VESSELS AND BLOOD CIRCULATION
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 14
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 14.
3.
Blood Vessels
a.
Describe the functional classification of blood vessels.
b.
(1)
Arteries/arterioles
(2)
Veins/venules
(3)
Capillaries
Explain the two circuits of vessels
(1)
Pulmonary
(a)
Function:
(b)
(2)
Systemic
(a)
Function:
(b)
c.
Vessels included
Vessels included
Vessel structure
(1)
Describe artery walls
(a)
3 layers
(b)
Largest and smallest divisions
(1)
Aorta
(2)
Arterioles
(2)
Describe capillary walls.
(3)
Describe vein walls.
47
4.
(a)
Pressure of blood in venules:
(b)
One-way valves
Names of systemic arteries
a.
Aorta and its parts
(1)
Ascending
(2)
Aortic arch
(3)
Thoracic aorta
(4)
Abdominal aorta
b.
Branches of the ascending aorta and arch
(1)
Coronary arteries
(2)
Branches of the aortic arch--3
(a)
Bracheocephalic
i.
Right subclavian
ii.
Right common carotid
(b)
Left common carotid
(c)
Left subclavian
(3)
Thoracic aorta
(a)
Esophagus
(b)
Intercostal
(4)
Abdominal aorta
(a)
Unpaired vessels/visceral branches
i.
Celiac trunk: 3 branches
ii.
Superior mesenteric
iii.
Inferior mesenteric
(b)
(5)
Paired vessels
i.
Phrenic
ii.
Suprarenal
iii.
Renal
iv.
Ovarian/testicular
v.
Lumbar
Iliac arteries and their subdivisions
(a)
Common iliac arteries> internal/external
(b)
Femoral
(c)
Popliteal
(d)
Tibial
(e)
Dorsalis pedis
48
(6)
5.
Arteries to head and arm
(a)
Carotids>internal/external
(b)
Subclavian
(c)
Axillary
i.
Brachial
ii.
Radial
iii.
Ulnar
c.
Define anastomosis and state its function.
d.
Describe the following anastomoses and their significance:
(1)
Circle of Willis
(2)
Volar arch
(3)
Mesenteric arch
(4)
Arterial arches
Systemic veins
a.
Superficial veins
(1)
Cephalic
(2)
Basilic
(3)
Median cubital
(4)
Saphenous
b.
List examples of deep veins
c.
Vena cava
(1)
Superior
(2)
Inferior
(a)
Paired: iliac, lumbar, testicular, ovarian, renal, suprarenal,
hepatic
(b)
Unpaired: hepatic portal vein
d.
Venous sinuses
(1)
Define
(2)
e.
Examples
(a)
Coronary sinus
(b)
Cranial venous sinuses
(c)
Cavernous
(d)
Super sagittal
(e)
Transverse/lateral
Hepatic portal system (define)
49
(2)
and FROM.
6.
(3)
Name veins that drain into the portal vein.
(4)
What is the function of the sinusoids?
(5)
What is the purpose of the hepatic portal system?
Physiology of circulation
a.
Briefly describe how capillaries work and why they are so important.
b.
What is the location and function of tissue fluid/interstitial fluid?
c.
Capillary exchange
(1)
What processes/forces are involved in the movement of
substances?
(2)
d.
e.
7.
Identify the largest portal system and where it carries blood TO
At what speed does this exchange occur?
Dynamics of blood flow
(1)
How is blood flow regulated?
(2)
Define vasodilation and vasoconstriction.
(3)
Where are these regulated?
How does blood return to the heart?
Pulse
a.
What causes a pulse?
(1)
Normal rate:
(2)
Common points to feel
(3)
Factors that affect pulse rate
50
b.
Blood pressure
(1)
What is a blood pressure?
(2)
What is it the product of?
(3)
What factors influence output of the heart?
(4)
What factors influence resistance in the vessels?
(5)
Measurement of blood pressure
(a)
Sphygmomanometer
i.
Systolic pressure
ii.
(6)
Diastolic pressure
Terms
(a)
Hypotension
(b)
Hypertension
51
CHAPTER 15
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 15.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 15.
3.
What happens to excess fluid in body tissues?
4.
What are lymph capillaries?
5.
6.
a.
What is lymph?
b.
What are lymph nodes?
Describe appearance of lymphatic capillaries.
a.
Where do they begin and end?
b.
Where are lacteals found and what do they do?
Lymphatic vessels
a.
Describe appearance
b.
Where are they located?
c.
How are they named?
d.
What are the 2 terminal vessels?
(1)
Right lymphatic duct
(2)
Thoracic duct
(a)
Cisterna chyli
(b)
e.
What is chyle?
How does lymph move along vessels?
52
7.
Lymphoid tissue
a.
What is it and where is it?
b.
Identify 2 general functions.
c.
Lymph nodes
(1)
What is inside lymph nodes?
(2)
8.
9.
10.
Location of nodes
(a)
Cervical
(b)
Axillary
(c)
Tracheobronchial
(d)
Mesenteric
(e)
Inguinal
What are tonsils?
a.
What do they filter?
b.
Locations
(1)
Palatine
(2)
Pharyngeal
(3)
Lingual
Thymus
a.
Where is it located?
b.
Role in early life:
c.
What hormone is secreted?
d.
What does this hormone stimulate?
e.
Changes after puberty:
Spleen
a.
Where is it located?
b.
Describe appearance.
c.
Describe the 4 primary functions:
53
11.
12.
What is the reticuloendothelial systems’ function?
a.
What are Monocytes and where are they formed?
b.
Where are Kupffer cells found and what do they do?
c.
Where is the reticuloendothelial system located?
Immunity
a.
List non-specific immune defenses.
b.
Why is the immune system our final line of defense?
c.
What is meant by selective immunity?
d.
What are the 2 main categories of immunity? (See Fig. 15-6.)
(1)
Inborn immunity (inherited)
(2)
(a)
What is species immunity?
(b)
What is population immunity?
(c)
What is individual immunity?
Acquired immunity
(a)
How does one acquire immunity?
(b)
Antigens: What are they and where are they found?
(c)
T cells
(i)
Where are T-cells made and where do they
mature?
(ii)
Describe 4 types of T-cells and their function.
(d)
What do macrophages do?
(e)
B cells and antibodies
(i)
What is an antibody (Ab)/immunoglobulin (Ig)?
54
(f)
13.
(ii)
Where are antibodies manufactured?
(iii)
What is humoral immunity and what does it do?
(iv)
Where are all antibodies found?
What is the antigen-antibody reaction?
Naturally acquired immunity
a.
Active immunity
b.
Passive immunity
14.
Artificially acquired immunity
a.
vaccinations/immunizations
b.
Attentuated vaccine
c.
Toxoid
d.
Recombinant DNA
e.
Boosters
15.
Passive immunization—immune serum/antiserum
a.
Describe.
b.
When are they used?
55
CHAPTER 16
RESPIRATION
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 16.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 16.
3.
Define respiration.
4.
Describe the 3 phases of respiration.
5.
What is cellular respiration?
6.
The Respiratory System
a.
Nasal cavities: describe the contents
(1)
Nostrils (nares)
(2)
Nasal cavities and septum
(3)
Conchae
(4)
Mucous membrane
(5)
What changes take place in air breathed through the nose?
(6)
b.
Pharynx - throat
(1)
What occurs here?
(2)
c.
What are the sinuses?
3 sections
(a)
Nasopharynx
(b)
Oropharynx
(c)
Laryngeal pharynx
Larynx - voice box
(1)
Describe location and what it is made of.
(2)
What is the Adam’s Apple?
(3)
Vocal cords
(4)
Male-female differences
56
(5)
Glottis
(6)
Epiglottis
(a)
What function does the glottis and epiglottis perform?
(b)
d.
e.
How do they perform it?
Trachea - windpipe
(1)
Location
(2)
Construction
(3)
Purpose:
Bronchi and bronchioles
(1)
Two main divisions – differences between and implications
(2)
Hilus - hilum
f.
Lining of air passages
(1)
Structure
(2)
Cilia
g.
Lungs
(1)
What occurs here?
h.
(2)
Describe the branching and construction of the bronchiole tree.
(3)
What are bronchioles?
Alveoli
(1)
Location
(2)
Describe the characteristics of the walls.
(3)
What does surfactant do?
57
i.
7.
Lung cavities and pleura
(1)
What separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity?
(2)
Describe pleura.
(a)
Parietal
(b)
Visceral
(c)
Pleural space
(3)
What does the mediastinum contain?
Process of respiration
a.
Pulmonary ventilation
(1)
What are the 2 phases of ventilation?
b.
c.
(2)
Describe the active phase of breathing.
(3)
What is compliance?
(4)
Describe the passive phase of breathing.
(5)
What are breathing volumes and capacities?
Gas exchange in the lungs
(1)
What is the respiratory membrane?
(2)
How do gases move across this membrane?
(3)
List the contents and percents of inspired air.
Gas transport
(1)
Transport of O2
(a)
Role of hemoglobin
(b)
Percent of oxygen saturation in arterial blood
58
(2)
d.
(c)
Percent of oxygen saturation in venous blood
(d)
What does partial pressure refer to?
Transport of CO2
(a)
Name the 3 methods carbon dioxide (CO2) is transported
in the blood.
(b)
What is carbonic anhydrase and what does it do?
(c)
What does CO2 help regulate?
Regulation of Respiration
(1)
Nervous control
(a)
Where is the respiratory control center?
(b)
(2)
e.
Chemical control
(a)
Where are the chemoreceptors found?
(b)
What are they sensitive to?
(c)
How does carbon dioxide and blood acidity affect
respiration?
Breathing rates
(1)
Normal adult:
(2)
8.
What does the phrenic nerve innervate?
Children and infants
Identify the effects of aging on the respiratory system.
59
CHAPTER 17
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as you resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 17.
Complete Study Guide exercises, Chapter 17.
3.
Function and design of the digestive system.
a.
Define the 2 chief functions of the digestive system.
(1)
Digestion
(2)
b.
Absorption
Describe two groups of organs the digestive system may be divided into.
(1)
Digestive tract
(2)
Accessory organs
c.
Name the membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity.
d.
The Wall of the digestive tract
(1)
Describe the layers of the walls from innermost to outermost
surface.
(a)
Mucous membrane/mucosa
(b)
Submucosa
(c)
Smooth muscle
i.
(2)
e.
What is peristalsis?
Serous membrane
The peritoneum
(1)
Parietal
(2)
Visceral
60
f.
Subdivisions of the peritoneum
(1)
Describe the mesentery, omentum, greater omentum
g.
Organs of the digestive tract
(1)
Name the parts of the digestive tract.
(2)
h.
4.
5.
The mouth-oral cavity
(1)
List the 3 main functions of the oral cavity.
(2)
Describe the tongue and what it is needed for.
(3)
The role of teeth
(a)
Number for children/adults
(b)
Deciduous teeth
(c)
Permanent
The pharynx-throat: describe the structure/definition of the following areas:
a.
Pharynx
b.
Palatine tonsils
c.
Soft palate
d.
Uvula
e.
Bolus
f.
Epiglottis
The esophagus
a.
Structure
b.
6.
Identify 2 other names used the digestive tract.
Esophageal hiatus
The Stomach
a.
Structure
61
b.
Sphincters
(1)
Define
(2)
c.
7.
8.
Identify the 2 sphincters in the stomach and their location.
Function of the stomach
(1)
What are rugae?
(2)
What are the 2 components of gastric juice?
(3)
What is chyme?
The small intestine
a.
Size, length, diameter:
b.
Divisions of the small intestine
c.
Function
(1)
What do the walls of the duodenum secrete?
(2)
Why are these secretions important?
(3)
What substances enter the small intestine to aid in digestion?
(4)
Absorption
(5)
What structures increase surface area of the walls of the
intestines?
The large intestine
a.
What are the two functions of the large intestines?
b.
Structure
c.
Subdivisions
(1)
Cecum
(a)
Ileocecel valve
(b)
Appendix
(2)
Colon
(a)
Ascending
(b)
Transverse
62
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(3)
9.
Descending
Sigmoid
Rectum
Anal canal
Anus
Functions
(a)
What does the large intestines secrete?
(b)
What is feces?
(c)
How does defecation occur?
(d)
Why are bacteria found in the large intestines and what do
they do?
The accessory organs
a.
Salivary glands
(1)
What is the purpose of saliva?
b.
(2)
Define mastication and deglutition.
(3)
What enzyme is present in saliva?
(4)
Identify the 3 pairs of salivary glands.
Liver
(1)
Describe appearance and location.
(2)
What vessels supply the liver with blood?
(3)
How much blood does the liver receive?
(4)
List the major functions of the liver.
(5)
What is the main digestive function of the liver?
63
c.
What does bile do?
(b)
How does it reach the duodenum?
The gallbladder (GB)
(1)
What is stored here?
(2)
d.
(a)
When is contraction of the GB stimulated?
The pancreas
(1)
What 2 substances does the pancreas produce?
(a)
(b)
(2)
10.
What do the enzymes digest?
What function does the alkaline fluid serve?
Why is it both an endocrine gland and digestive organ?
The process of digestion
a.
What does the process of digestion require?
b.
Define enzyme
c.
Role of water
(1)
What is hydrolysis?
(2)
d.
Why is water important in digestion?
Describe what happens to food from the time of ingestion.
(See Table 17.1)
(1)
What does salivary amylase do?
(2)
What do the gastric juices contain?
64
11.
What function(s) does hydrocholoric acid (HCL) provide?
(4)
What does pepsin do?
(5)
Define chyme.
(6)
What happens in the duodenum?
e.
Describe the contents of pancreatic juice.
f.
What does intestinal juice contain?
g.
What organ secretes sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3). (See Table 17.2)
Absorption
a.
Define and identify where absorption takes place.
b.
12.
(3)
Explain the role of villi.
(1)
Appearance
(2)
Absorption into bloodstream
(3)
What do they do?
c.
Define lacteals and chyle.
d.
How are vitamins and minerals absorbed from the small intestines?
Control of digestion
a.
Why is it important that digestion be regulated?
b.
Name the two types of control.
c.
Describe the control mechanism of the nervous system.
(1)
Location
(2)
Instructions come from:
(3)
Effect of stress
65
d.
13.
Define and describe the following terms:
a.
Hunger
(1)
Regulation
(2)
Influences
b.
14.
Describe the following regarding the role of hormones:
(1)
Stimuli
(2)
Effect of gastrin
(3)
Action of chyme in the duodenum
(4)
Additional function of hormones
Appetite
Identify the effects of aging on the digestive system.
CHAPTER 18
Metabolism
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 18.
Complete the Study Guide exercises, Chapter 18.
3a.
Define the following
(1)
Metabolism
(2)
Catabolism
(3)
Anabolism
66
b.
How do cells obtain energy from food?
c.
What are the 2 phases of cellular respiration?
(1)
Anaerobic (glycolysis)
(a)
What is the end product of the incomplete breakdown of
glucose?
(b)
(2)
What is pyruvic acid coverted to?
Aerobic
(a)
Complete breakdown of glucose for energy
(b)
What is meant by oxidation of nutrients?
(c)
What catalysts are used?
(d)
What happens to the energy released as a result of the
oxidation process?
d.
Define metabolic rate and basal metabolic rate.
e.
Use of nutrients for energy
(1)
What is the main source of energy?
(2)
f.
What is stored glucose called and where is it stored?
Anabolism
(1)
Essential amino acids
(a)
How many essential and non-essential amino acids are
there?
(b)
What is the difference between essential and non-essential
amino acids?
(c)
What are complete proteins and what is the most common
source?
67
g.
h.
Minerals and vitamins
(1)
What are minerals needed for?
(2)
What are trace elements?
(3)
Why are vitamins needed?
(a)
What are the water soluble vitamins?
(b)
What are the fat soluble vitamins?
Nutrition guidelines
(1)
Define malnutrition.
(2)
How should calories taken in be distributed?
(a)
CHO
(b)
Fat
(c)
Protein
(3)
Compare saturated and unsaturated fats.
(4)
For what populations are vitamin and mineral supplements
recommended?
(5)
Identify the most common food allergens.
(6)
How does the body metabolize alcohol?
68
CHAPTER 19
THE URINARY SYSTEM AND BODY FLUIDS
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
2.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 19 and 2.
Complete the Study Guide, Chapter 19 and 2.
3.
What is the main function of the urinary system?
4.
Name and describe the 4 systems of the body that are active in excretion.
5.
Identify and describe the 4 main parts of the urinary system.
6.
The kidneys
a.
Location:
(1)
Membranous capsule
(2)
What anchors the kidney to the abdominal wall?
(3)
Retroperitoneal space
b.
c.
Blood supply
(1)
Renal artery
(2)
What is the functional unit of the kidney?
(3)
Renal vein
Structure of the kidney
(1)
Appearance:
(2)
Hilus
(3)
Name the 2 regions of the kidney and what they contain.
(a)
Renal cortex
(b)
(c)
(4)
Medulla
Renal pelvis and calyces
What is the nephron?
(a)
Name the parts of the nephron
69
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(5)
Where is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
(a)
What is its’ function?
(b)
7.
8.
How many are contained in each kidney?
What does the afferent arteriole do?
What does the efferent arteriole do?
Why are the peritubular capillaries so named?
Name the tubular parts of the nephron.
What enzyme is secreted here and when is it secreted?
List the 5 functions of the kidneys.
a.
Explain the term urea.
b.
Identify ways water is lost from the body.
c.
What is the function of renin?
d.
What is erythropoietin and when is it produced?
Formation of urine
a.
Glomerular filtration
(1)
Where does the process of urine formation begin?
b.
(2)
How does filtration occur?
(3)
What is glomerular filtration?
(4)
What is the glomerular filtrate?
Tubular reabsorption
(1)
Volume of filtrate formed each day:
70
c.
(2)
Volume of urine eliminated each day:
(3)
What happens to the difference?
(4)
When does reabsorption occur?
(5)
How does it occur?
Tubular secretion
(1)
What occurs in tubular secretion?
(2)
d.
e.
9.
How does tubular secretion help regulate pH?
Concentration of urine
(1)
What hormone influences the amount of water (H20) that is
eliminated?
(2)
Where does it come from?
(3)
What mechanism is responsible for concentrating the urine?
(4)
Describe how urine becomes concentrated and the volume
reduced.
(5)
What is the role of ADH and where is it released from?
Summarize the processes involved in urine formation. (See Figure 19-9)
Storage and transport of urine
a.
Ureters
(1)
Describe appearance.
(2)
b.
How is urine moved through the ureters?
Urinary bladder
(1)
Describe the layers of the bladder.
(2)
Capacity:
71
c.
Urethra
(1)
Describe the differences between the male and female urethras.
(2)
d.
What is the urinary meatus?
Urination
(1)
What is meant by micturition and how is it controlled?
(2)
Describe the 2 sphincters in the bladder.
(3)
How does the bladder empty? (Include both voluntary and
involuntary)
10.
Summarize the effects of aging on the urinary system.
11.
The urine.
a.
Describe appearance and contents.
12.
b.
What does specific gravity indicate?
(1)
Normal range:
c.
List normal substances found in urine.
(1)
Nitrogenous waste products
(2)
Electrolytes
(3)
Yellow pigment
Body fluids
a.
Water
(1)
Identify 3 functions of water.
(2)
Normal percentage of adult body weight:
72
b.
(3)
Identify substances carried in water.
(4)
Explain the ways in which the constancy of body fluids is
maintained:
Fluid compartments
(1)
Describe the following fluid compartments:
(a)
Intracellular
(b)
Extracellular
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
(2)
c.
13.
Blood plasma
Interstitial
Lymph
Special compartments
Fluids move between compartments by what processes?
Water balance
(1)
Average intake:
(2)
Average output:
(3)
How is H2O lost from the body?
(4)
Sense of thirst
(a)
Where is the control center for the sense of thirst?
(b)
How is it stimulated?
(c)
Define polydipsia.
Electrolytes and their functions
a.
What are electrolytes?
b.
Define cations and anions.
73
c.
Why are they named electrolytes?
d.
Cations
(1)
Sodium
(2)
Potassium
(3)
Calcium
e.
Anions
(1)
Phosphate
(2)
Chloride
14.
Electrolyte balance
a.
Identify hormones involved in balancing electrolytes.
(1)
Aldosterone
(2)
ADH
(3)
Thyroid/Parathyroid
15.
Acid-base balance
a.
Identify systems involved in maintaining acid-base balance.
b.
List the main buffer systems.
c.
How do the lungs help in maintaining acid-base balance?
d.
How do the kidneys help in maintaining acid-base balance?
16. Define the following:
Anuria:
Oliguria:
Polyuria:
Dysuria:
Hematuria:
Glycosuria:
Nocturia:
Pyuria:
74
CHAPTER 20
THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Complete the following objectives to prepare for class discussion. Use your text,
syllabus and Study Guide as your resource.
1.
Define Key Terms, Chapter 20 and complete Study Guide exercises, Chapter
20.
2
Name two types of reproduction and explain their meaning.
3..
Define gamete.
4.
Name the male and female sex cell.
5.
Define meiosis.
6.
How many chromosomes exist in humans?
7.
Explain the 2 groups of reproductive organs.
8.
Male Reproductive System
a.
Testes
(1)
Scrotum
(2)
Testes
(a)
Describe:
(b)
When do they descend into the scrotum and through what
structure?
(c)
What is the function of the spermatic cord?
(d)
Describe the tissue of the testes and what it produces.
75
(e)
(3)
b.
e.
(b)
Seminal vesicle
(c)
Ejaculatory duct
What are the functions of semen?
The seminal vesicles
(1)
Describe the appearance.
(a)
What do they secrete?
(b)
Explain action of the secretions.
The prostate gland
(1)
Describe location and define secretion
(2)
f.
Identify the path of sperm cells:
(a)
Vas deferens (ductus deferens)
Formation of semen
(1)
List contents:
(2)
d.
State the 2 functions of the hormone testosterone.
The duct system
(1)
Epididymis: What occurs here?
(2)
c.
What do the interstitial cells secrete?
Muscle contraction
Bulbourethral glands
(1)
Cowpers or bulbourethral
(2)
Function of secretion:
76
g.
h.
9.
(2)
Describe the structure of the penis.
(3)
What is the prepuce?
(4)
Define ejaculation and describe how this action occurs.
The spermatozoa
(1)
Amount in one ejaculation
(2)
When are they manufactured and where do they develop?
(3)
Function of Sertoli cells
(4)
Acrosome: function
(5)
What makes sperm travel?
(6)
How long do sperm live?
Hormonal control of male reproduction
(a)
Identify 2 hormones that control the testes.
(b)
10.
Urethra and penis
(1)
Explain the dual role of the urethra.
What gland stimulates these hormones to be secreted?
Effects of aging on the male reproduction system:
77
11.
Female Reproductive System
a.
The ovaries
(1)
Ova
(2)
b.
Describe appearance and location.
Egg cell and ovulation
(1)
Ovarian follicle/graafian follicle
(a)
Action of estrogen
(b)
(2)
c.
e.
Oviduct
Corpus luteum
(1)
Appearance
(2)
d.
Ovulation
Action
The oviducts/fallopian tubes/uterine tubes
(1)
Appearance
(2)
What action do fimbriae and cilia perform?
(3)
How long does the ova require to reach the uterus?
The uterus
(1)
Structure
(2)
Body or corpus
(3)
Neck or cervix
(4)
Fundus
(5)
Vagina
(6)
Endometrium
(7)
How is the uterus supported?
78
f.
Vagina
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
g.
Greater vestibular glands
(1)
Location and names
(2)
h.
Function
Vulva and perineum
(1)
Structures which form the vulva:
(2)
12.
Structure
Fornices
Cul-de-sac
Lining
Hymen
What is the perineum?
The menstrual cycle
a.
Controlled by what gland?
b.
Length:
c.
Beginning of cycle
(1)
Action of FSH:
(2)
Action of estrogen
(3)
How is the uterine lining prepared for pregnancy?
d.
Ovulation
(1)
Action of LH
(2)
Corpus luteum
(a)
Effects of estrogen:
(b)
Effects of progesterone
f.
Menstrual flow
(1)
What happens to the ovum if not fertilized?
(2)
What is the menstrual flow and what does it contain?
(3)
When does a new ovum ripen?
79
13.
Menopause
a.
Define.
b.
Age of occurrence
c.
Cause:
d.
Use of Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT)
(1)
Benefits
(2)
14.
Risks
Contraception
a.
Define.
b.
Review Table 20-1, page 325.
CHAPTER 21
DEVELOPMENT AND HEREDITY
1.
Pregnancy
a.
When does it begin and end?
b.
Fertilization and the start of pregnancy
(1)
Zygote
(2)
c.
How does the zygote travel?
Development and functions of placenta
(1)
Implantation of embryo
(2)
Function of villi
(3)
Placenta
(a)
Umbilical cord
(b)
Name the functions of the placenta as an organ.
80
(4)
Umbilical cord
(a)
Function
(b)
(5)
d.
Placental hormones
(a)
Human chorionic gonadotropin
(b)
Progesterone
(c)
Estrogen
Development of embryo
(1)
Explain what happens the first 8 weeks of the developing
offspring.
(a)
By end of first month
(b)
(2)
e.
f.
2.
Contents
By end of second month
When is the term fetus used?
(a)
Most rapid growth:
(b)
By end of 4th month:
(c)
List functions of the amniotic sac and fluid.
(d)
What is vernix caseosa?
The mother
(1)
Total period of pregnancy:
(2)
List changes in organ systems of the mother secondary to
pregnancy.
(3)
Discomforts of early pregnancy and possible reason.
Ultrasound in obstetrics
Childbirth
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3.
4.
a.
What hormone may contribute to the onset of labor?
b.
Identify 4 stages of labor:
c.
What is an episotomy?
d.
Cesarean section
e.
Multiple births
(1)
Fraternal twins
(2)
Identical twins
Termination of pregnancy
a.
Live birth
b.
Immature (premature) birth
c.
Abortion
(1)
Spontaneous (miscarriage)
(2)
Induced
(3)
Therapeutic
d.
Fetal death
e.
Leading cause of death:
Mammary glands and lactation
a.
Purpose
b.
Lactiferous ducts
c.
Explain the 3 hormones necessary for lactation.
d.
What is colostrum?
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e.
5.
List advantages of mother’s milk.
Heredity
a.
What are the independent units of heredity called?
b.
Genes and chromosomes
(1)
What are genes made of?
(2)
How do they act?
(3)
How many chromosomes do cells have?
6.
Describe the difference between dominant and recessive genes.
7.
Who is considered a ‘carrier’ of a specific gene?
8.
Distribution of chromosomes
a.
What is meiosis?
9.
b.
Describe the female and male sex chromosomes.
c.
What is a sex linked trait?
Identify some observable heredity traits.
a.
What is multifactoral inheritance?
b.
Identify factors that may influence the expression of a gene.
c.
Define mutation.
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