Download Chapter 8: The Unification of China Themes: The end of the Period

Chapter 8:
The Unification of China
Themes: The end of the Period of Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.) sets the stage for the
developments of a classical Chinese empire as well as the foundation of Confucianism in China. The
rise and fall of Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi make a fascinating story, for the grand structures he
commissioned also led to the extreme oppression of the Chinese people and the downfall of his
“dynasty” after only two rulers. Qin Shi Huangdi’s imperial organization and military conquests can
be easily compared to the Persian experiences.
The successor dynasty, the Han, continued the Qin patterns, albeit at a more modest pace to
keep the peasantry from revolting again. Han Wudi’s military expansions, however, necessitated
greater taxes and huge numbers of conscripted soldiers. As small farmers had to sell their lands,
agricultural lands became concentrated in the hands of a relatively small number of wealthy
landowners. Unequal land distribution was to plague Chinese politics and the economy for
centuries. It would be a good idea to integrate information on the silk roads in this chapter (from
chapter 12), or students won’t associate the silk roads with the Han.
Just as the Period of Warring States had given birth to the organized Qin, it also gave rise to
the philosophies of Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism. Each of the three philosophies tried to
explain how to secure a peaceful and well-ordered society. Confucianism attempted this by moral
political service and adherence to a strict social hierarchy; Daoism by withdrawal into individual
goodness; and Legalism by clear laws and swift punishments to transgressors.
The foundations of bureaucratic centralization in China went hand in hand with the
establishment of universities in which to train the bureaucrats. Confucianism became the dominant
educational and political philosophy in those universities, in large part because they had an
established canon and curriculum dating from the Zhou dynasty. For the next 2000 years, in order
to become a government official in China, one had to become a proficient scholar of Confucian
philosophy and pass rigorous examinations. Buddhism became another philosophy, a little closer to
a religion than Confucianism, which was prevalent in Han and post-Classical China. (This is also
covered in chapter 12.)
The other important theme that reappears in this chapter is the complicated relationship
between the northern nomadic peoples and the peoples of the settled, agricultural Chinese empire.
In the classical period, the Xiongnu created an empire strong and organized enough to challenge
Han Wudi (ultimately unsuccessfully), although usually tactics such as paying tribute, or allowing
untaxed trade, or even marrying Chinese daughters to Xiongnu chiefs were enough to keep the
peace.
The Han ruled for four centuries, but their control disintegrated due to a formidable array of
internal problems (uprisings of desperate and disgruntled peasants; competing elite factions who
fought each other in civil wars; disease outbreaks). This, however, is not included in chapter 8. It
would be worthwhile to include reading from chapter 12 here (pages 302 to 305) on the fall of the
Han; otherwise students will have a hard time pulling it all together.
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Chapter 8 Reading Questions:
1. What are the fundamental ideas and values of Confucianism? Make sure to include the
concepts of ren, li, and xiao in your answer. Confucius ideas and values were moral, ethical, and
political in character. Confucius did not address abstruse philosophical questions because he thought
they would not help to solve the political and social problems. He also did not deal with religious
questions because he believed they went beyond the capacity of mortal human intelligence. He also
did not deal with the social structure of the state because he believed political and social harmony
worked better for proper human ordering than the establishment of state officers. Ren was a quality
believed to be an attitude of kindness and benevolence or a sense of humanity. Individuals
possessing ren were courteous, respectful, diligent, and loyal. Li was a sense of propriety which called
for individuals to behave in conventionally appropriate fashion. Xiao, filial piety, reflected on the
high significance of family in Chinese society. These qualities were emphasized because Confucius
believed that individuals who possessed these traits would gain influence in the larger society.
2. How does Daoism contrast with Confucianism? The Daoists were the most prominent critics of
Confucian activism. Unlike the Confucians, the Daoists considered it pointless to waste time and
energy on problems that defied solution. Instead of Confucian social activism, the Daoists devoted
their energies to reflection and introspectation, in hopes that they would understand the natural
principles that governed the world and could learn how to harmonize with them. Also, Daoism
served as a counterbalance to the activism and extroversion of the Confucian tradition.
3. What were the fundamental principles of Legalism, and how does it differ from
Confucianism and Daoism? Unlike the Confucians, the legalists did not concern themselves with
ethics, morality, or propriety. Unlike the Daoists, the Legalists cared nothing about principles
governing the world or the place of human beings in nature. Instead, they devoted their attention
exclusively to the state, which they planned on strengthening and expanding no matter what. The
Legalists believed that strength of a state relies on agriculture and armed forces so as a result they
encourages people into cultivation or military service as opposed to educators, scholars. or
philosophers. The Legalists expected to harness subjects’ energy by means of clear and strict laws.
They expected all members of a family to observe the others closely.
4. Why does your book call Qin Shihuangdi “one of the most important figures in Chinese
history”? He was the first emperor of the Qin dynasty. Even though it only lasted 14 years, During
Qin’s reign, he was able to form a centralized imperial rule that allowed for long term political
organization over the Chinese civilization. This rule formed China and is the main reason he is
known as one of the most important figures in Chinese history. Qin ruled his empire as a centralized
bureaucracy. He launched many initiatives that enhanced the unity of China such as that he
standardized the laws, currencies, weights and measures of the various regions of China. He also
helped build roads and bridges that encouraged economic intergration.
5. How did the early Han contribute to the unification of China? The emperor, Liu Bang,
attempted to follow a middle path between the decentralized network of political alliances of the
zhou dynasty and the tightly knit state of the Qin. He did this to try to save the advantages and avoid
the excesses of both the Zhou and Qin dynasties. He allotted large landholding to members of the
imperial family in expectation they would provide a reliable network or support for his rule. But he
also divided the empire into administrative districts governed by officials who served at the
emperor’s pleasure in expectation that he could exercise effective control over the development and
implementation of his policies. After an Xiongnu invasion, a policy of centralization was used. Two
policies were essential in the Han’s success: administrative centralization and imperial expansion.
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6. Discuss the role of the Xiongnu in the history of China during the Han. The Xiongnu were
nomadic peoples from the steppes of central Asia. They were the greatest foreign challenge Han
Wudi faced. Xiangnu boys learned to ride sheep and shoot rodents at an early age. Although their
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weaponry was not as sophisticated as that of the Chinese, their mobility offered them a distinct
advantage. When they couldn’t satisfy their needs through peaceful trade, they would suddenly raid
villages or trading areas, where they commandeered food supplies or manufactured goods. The
Xiongnu could disperse when confronted by a superior force. Maodun, their most successful leader,
brought strict military discipline to the Xiongnu. Their empire was a source of concern to the Han
emperors. Han Wudi brought much of the Xiongnu Empire under Chinese military control, after
deciding to go on the offense against them. As a result of these efforts, the Xiongnu fell into dynasty
7. What were the most significant technological developments during this period of Chinese
history? Iron metallurgy had important domestic and military uses. Iron armor was used to protect
soldiers, and the strength and sharpness of Han swords, spears, and arrowheads contributed to the
success of Chinese armies against the Xiongnu and other nomads. Sericulture, the manufacture of
silk, was important because through careful breeding, Chinese silk was very fine and became a prized
commodity in India, Persia, Mesopotamia, and the Roman Empire. Commerce in silk and other
products led to the establishment of a network of trade routes-silk road. The invention of paper
made it less expensive than bamboo and became the preferred median for most writing.
8. How did the issue of uneven distribution of wealth contribute to the collapse of the Han?
The military adventures in China, such as expeditions against the Xiongnu, caused huge economic
strain. These expeditions were extremely expensive and rapidly consumed the empire’s surplus
wealth. To finance these Han Wudi raised taxes and confiscated land and personal property from
wealthy individuals. These things discouraged investment in manufacturing and trading enterprises
which led to dampening effect on larger economy. Tensions began to grow between the rich and
poor and they soon organized rebellions in hopes to gain larger shares of the Han society’s resources.
Individual economic problems were brought by high taxes and poor harvests caused by landowners
to sell their property.
9. How did the educational system develop in China during this period? Han Wudi established
an imperial university that prepared young men for government service. Han Wudi cared little for
learning, but he recognized that the success of his efforts at bureaucratic centralization would depend
on a corps of educated officeholders. The imperial university took Confucianism as the basis for its
curriculum. Confucianism became the imperial ideology. By the end of the Former Han dynasty, the
imperial university enrolled more than three thousand students, and by the end of the Later Han, the
student population had risen to more than thirty thousand.
10.
What was the role of the family in classical China? It was patriarchal, and each
household typically consisted of five inhabitants. Children should obey and honor their parents as
well as other superiors and political authorities. Women should show humility, obedience,
subservience, and devotion to their husbands. Patriarchal families were the foundations of a stable
society.
Historical Terms and Concepts to Know
Sian Qian
castration
eunuchs
Period of the Warring States
Kong Fuzi
Analects
ren, li, xiao
Laozi
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Dao, Daoism
Legalism
Qin Shi Huangdi
Great Wall
Chinese script
conscription
Liu Bang
Chang’an
Han Wudi
Vietnam
Korea
Xiongnu
Bactria
tribute
hegemony
silk
Yellow Turban Uprising
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