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“Engage and Inspire the European
Youth in the Space Exploration through
a Scientific Contest”
Coordination and Support Action FP7- 284442
Project Worksheet
Name of the project
Odysseus Contest
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Name of the project
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Odysseus Contest
Project Title
Competing Category:
i. Solar System
ii. Spaceship global cooperation
iii. Co-evolution of life
Χ
Name of the Team:kollegio psychikou gymnasio
Team members’ names: Emfietzoglou Rodopi, Zioga Daphne
Skylouraki Konstadina, Papa Theodora,
Coach’s name: Kontostavlaki Dimitra
Abstract (limit 200 words).
This project’s topic is the evolution of the brain. Having in mind the fact that
humans have been becoming more and more intelligent over the years, we
hypothesized that in the future, the human brain will be evolving. It was
thought that the way in which this can be proved, is the following. An
extensive study of the evolution of humans even from the prehistoric period
(homo erectus, homo habilis, homo sapiens), a close investigation of
intelligence, of the role of technology and genes, as well as external factors
that affected the evolution of the brain, are the necessary steps that should
be followed in order for one to reach the desirable and accurate conclusions.
Notably, the relationship between human evolution of the brain and
technology is stressed. The conclusions that have been drawn are based on
the fact that the human brain will be evolving in the future.
Introduction – Description of the Problem (limit 200 words)
In the animal kingdom, all living organisms show intelligence and humans are
considered to exhibit the highest expression. However, it is not easy to define
the term intelligence in a way that it can be applied to all animals. It has been
described as the speed and success of problem solving in order to survive or
as the mental and behavioral flexibility of an organism that helps him adapt to
a new situation. Intelligence is considered to be related to the size of brain,
cortex and the number of cortical neurons. From anthropological studies, it
has been shown that the size of human brain has increased largely from
Australopithecus to our early Homo ancestors. Factors that have influenced
the evolution of the human brain are related to behavioral and environmental
changes and challenges, such as finding food, altering diet, using language,
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constructing and using tools and socialization1.
The main focus of this project is to study whether factors of the modern
society can affect the evolution of modern humans’ brain. More specifically,
we would like to study whether the increased use of technology in every
aspect of our life can lead to an increase in human intelligence or whether the
human brain will stop evolving due to the fact that technology often
“substitutes” human brain functions and leads to a decrease in socialization.
Moreover, the effect of diet on human brain evolution will be studied.
Hypothesis – Initial Ideas (limit 200 words)
Our main hypothesis regarding the evolution of human brain is that in a few
years’ time, the human brain will be functioning with a greater level of
intelligence and won’t be overpassed by technology. Other environmental
stimuli and changes in alimentation may lead to changes in specific parts of
the brain, such as growth of the prefrontal cortex and increased interactions
of neurons. The prefrontal cortex is the interior part of the frontal lobes of the
brain, responsible for cognitive and social behavior, personality expression
and decision making19, while the neurons are an excitable cell that processes
and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. Thanks to
them, motor coordination, perception, retention of memories, acquisition of
vocabulary and the ability to develop patterns of thought are accomplished20.
We believe that the above mentioned factors will induce changes to human
brain that will mainly involve alterations of the existing neuronal networks and
connections and not a decrease in the size of the cortex.
Project Methodology (limit 450 words)
In this project, concerning the evolution of human brain, we used various
resources to find the information through which we could answer our main
question. It was not feasible to use any experimental procedures to test our
hypothesis since evolution needs hundreds of years, or even more, to take
place.
Both electronic and printed sources were used. After going through the
contents of the books and the basic information in the websites, we decided
that our research was going to be based on the following categories:
1. The evolution of the human brain
2. Alterations in anatomical parts of the human brain with specific focus
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on those related to intelligence
3. Factors of the modern society that could alter brain structure and
function
The bases of our research were the following facts:
a) Man has been becoming more and more intelligent over the years
b) Humans first appeared millions years ago
c) Ever since, the brain has been evolving
Conduction of Research (limit 450 words)
1. Evolution of the human brain
The brain’s prototype developed in the first primitive sea creatures like the
sea-squirt. Its simple nervous system is a set of specialized cells, prickling
with electricity. Within the sea-squirts embryo, these cells form a tube. Then,
about five million years ago, the cortex appeared in the early man. Its surface
was organized into columns which enabled memory storage, learning,
planning. At that time, the first brain appeared in the African savannah and
weighed less than a pound. Within three million years, the early hominids
were making tools (Homo habilis=tool-maker). His brain was about ½ pound
heavier than its ancestors’. Afterwards, 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus
appeared and the brain nearly doubled in size. He is thought to have
developed key innovations that help him to thrive (including hunting large
prays, using of fire and social bunds). 100,000 years ago, Homo sapiens’s
brain weighed 3 pounds and it was four times larger and three times bigger
than its prototype15. While homo sapiens was sharing the world with the
Neanderthals, which are our European cousins who died as modern humans
spread from Africa into Europe, during the Ice Age. Furthermore, in Europe
the landscape was changing from ice-covered tundra to thick forests. 14
In humans, the old parts of the brain oversee emotion, help build memories
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and control breathing. The oldest and smallest region in the evolving human
brain is the brainstem. Thanks to it, we get the traits of cold-blooded
behavior, the desire for top-down hierarchy and an obsession with ritual.
Human motivational, affective, behavioral and cognitive systems have evolved
to possess social and ecological information that was connected to survival or
reproductive options during human evolution. The parts of the brain that have
evolved the most in human beings are in the prefrontal cortex. 16
2. Alterations in anatomical parts of the human brain with specific focus
on those related to intelligence
It has been stated that the size of the brain and the size of the cortex are
indicators of intelligence and could explain the enhanced intelligence exhibited
by humans. However, absolute brain size, relative brain size (brain size in
relation to body size), cortex size and encephalization cannot directly explain
human intelligence since it has been shown that elephants have larger brains
than humans2. On the other hand, a distinct difference of human brain when
compared to other mammals is the density of neurons and their connections 2.
The main reason that the prefrontal cortex is larger in humans than other
primates is that humans have a larger volume of white matter3. The white
matter consists of myelin covered axons that assist the communication with
other parts of the brain.
Factors that have induced an increase of human brain and thus of the
intelligence are stated to include hunting, use of fire, change of diet and
social lives.
Factors of the modern society that could alter brain structure and function
involve
Technology
There is a growing body of evidence that modern technological devices are
altering the human brain. It is stated that human exposure to computers,
twittering, and text messaging can accelerate learning by rewiring neural
circuitry4. In a recent study of internet searching, volunteers aged between 55
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and 76 years were asked to practice searching the internet while another
group was told not to search. By using magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to
scan the subjects' brains, they found that the individuals who used the
internet had approximately twice the amount of brain activity the other group.
This study offers a clear indication of neuroplasticity of the brain, even in
adults.
Genes
Lahn has identified that there are two genes related to brain size, although
their exact role has not yet been clarified. These genes are microcephalin and
ASPM (abnormal spindle-like microcephaly associated)5-6. It has been found
that the microcephalin allele arose about 37,000 years ago, around the time
when human art and other modern human behaviours emerged. In addition
the ASPM allele arose approximately 5,800 years ago when there was an
increase in writing, the formation of cities, complex societies, and civilisation.
Furthermore, the ASPM allele suggests that the human brain is still evolving7.
Diet
Analyzing the fossilized teeth of our ancestors using scanning
electronic microscopy, we observe enamel stripes caused by
chewing. The existence of large vertical roots shows a diet
reach in meat, while the horizontal one a diet rich in
vegetables.
The chemical composition of teeth and bones reveals the following about
the diet of Paleolithic people:
 In the northern regions, where vegetation was rare, diet was based
only on meat (provision of proteins)
 Consumption of dairy food
 Consumption of plants, seeds and herbivores (provision of strontium
and calcium)
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Stone Age
Neolithic Age
Industrial revolution
Increase in
consumption of meat,
eggs and fish
Consumption of fruit
and vegetable
(provision of fiber)
Introduction of cereal
and milk
“fresh product” is
imported
Agriculture and stock
raising
People receive 3 to 10
times more vitamins
that today
Consumption of
mashed potatoes
Sugar food with more
fat (bad saturated fatty
acids), salt,
preservatives, less fiber
Diabetes, heart disease
Increase in caries (first
tooth surgery 9.000
years ago)
From the above table, it is clarified that after the industrial revolution,
humans damaged their healthy habits concerning their alimentation, even
though the first alerting signs were noticed during the Neolithic Age, due to
changes in environmental factors. Although, in the Stone Age, people had
minimal knowledge of food, it appears that they followed a healthier lifestyle.
The last 60 years, the average IQ index increases by about 20 points in each
generation and new research promotes the position that diet is mainly
responsible for the increase of intelligence, because it increases the volume of
the skull and therefore the size of brain. Some studies show that people who
eat a diet rich in iron and zinc, have higher score on intelligence tests, while
other studies have linked increased intelligence with a diet that contains
enough doses of the fat presented in fish-specific fatty acids omega3 . Indeed
the fatty acids omega3 play an important role in the development of the outer
membrane of brain cells, through which pass all signals from the nerves.
These are the ways by which diet influence intelligence:
1. Brain cells as each cell of our body need "fuel" to function. The
fuel of the brain is glucose, which is obtained mainly from
carbohydrates.
2. The myelin sheath, the thin outer membrane of brain need
proteins and fatty acids, in order to create new connections and
accelerate the transmission of electrical messages through the
axons of the brain The lack of fatty acids in the diet, for
example, can cause slowing of associations and thoughts.
3. Neurotransmitters, substances such as serotonin, dopamine
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and nor epinephrine act as conduits messages from one cell to
another and affect our mood, our thoughts and our actions.
Thus, some components of foods can help us sharpen our
thinking, feeling optimistic or maintain a cool head.17, 18
Social interactions
The evolution of intelligence and larger brain sizes can be driven by
cooperation and teamwork. The social strategies that emerge spontaneously
in these bigger, more intelligent brains show complex memory and decision
making 8.
Analysis of Data (limit 500 words)
One way to determine if brain evolution will happen in the future, is to
consider how our brain evolved in the past.
There do not exist fossils of human brains and in that way researchers can
only study cranial capacities and structures in order to make speculations
regarding the evolution of human brain. Taking into account all the data
presented above, it is considered an undeniable fact that technology, either
referring to the use of fire or use of modern technology, has influenced the
structure and capacities of human brain. Environmental and behavioral
changes have led to human brain evolution and an increase of brain size and
more importantly increase in interneuronal connections between different
regions of the brain.
In the modern society, the amount and speed of stimuli that are received by
the humans and analyzed by the human brain have highly been increased.
Studies have shown that the use of technology increases neuronal
connections which could lead to enhancement of human intelligence. In that
sense we would expect human brains to become bigger. However, if our brain
did get bigger, other organs would have to grow as well, particularly the heart
in order to pump all the necessary nutrients to the brain. For the brain to
assess more information, the connections between brain cells would have to
become wider. However, to support that, more myelin would be needed, as
well as more blood flow to the brain to support these connections. That, in
turn, leaves less room for the expanded connections9-10.
On the other hand, it has been stated that a shrinkage on human brain could
be a possible evolutionary trend since larger brains take longer to develop
and consume more energy. Thus, shrinkage of human brains could be a sign
of energy conservation and highest efficiency. Surprisingly, according to
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Hawk, based on skull measurements, the human brain appears to have been
shrinking over the last 5,000 or so years11. This shrinkage is roughly 10%. He
interpreted this due to the fact that nowadays humans specialize our behavior
and rely on others, so maybe we don’t need our brain so much. Another
perspective is that the energy demands of the brain are less when it is
shrinking.
Apart from the increased number of information that must be processed
everyday by humans, the increased social competition of the modern society
can also lead to increased neuronal connections and thus intelligence of
human brain. A study made at the University of Missouri revealed that social
competition was one of the main factors that led to increased cranial capacity
12.
Discussion of the Findings (limit 300 words)
Bringing our final results from the bibliographic research into discussion, it
appears that the abilities of the human brain are finite. However, there are
definitely possibilities of intellectual development into the near future and this
is illustrated by the fact that at the present time humans use only 2% of
these abilities offered according to scientists. There are even those who
suggest development of all the human brain or at least of a big part in a few
years’ time. But, based on this assumption, we should also take into
consideration that nowadays humans assign more and more manual work and
other functions to technological machines, which means that they have ended
up being depended on technology. It is stated that the capacities of human
brain will be overwhelmed by computers by 2040. As a result of the previous
observation, humans hold a big untapped portion of brain matter, that will
inevitably lead to atrophy. Moreover, the computer power has increased a lot
over the last 10 years and as Andrew McLuhan had once pointed out: “First
we built tools, then they built us”. And to make things worse, we shouldn’t
forget that history always repeats itself. So, we are inclined to believe that as
the human brain grew bigger and bigger over the centuries, it is foreseeable
in the future to become again that small like the one homo habilis used to
have.21
Conclusions (limit 200 words)
From all our bibliographic research regarding the issue of the future evolution
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of the human intelligence, we have come up with the following conclusions.
To begin with, it can be argued that the relationship between the human
brain and technology is a relationship of interaction, because as proven
humans first created and used the term “technology”, while nowadays
technology seems to motivate and define the human knowledge, although
many people would contradict that humans equipped technological machines
with this ability. However, as shown from our final results, it is likely for the
human kind to become more intelligent, if specific parameters are taken into
consideration. For example, people are required to follow a balanced lifestyle,
similar to their ancestors, especially in the sector of alimentation, since
humans’ eating habits were damaged after the Industrial Revolution and the
introduction of fat food. In addition, the stimuli the people are going to
receive from their surroundings and the environmental factors that are likely
to go through changes in a few years’ time, play a really important role to the
question we are studying. In other words, the brain will be able to back itself
up, and parts will be repaired or replaced. But of course no one, even the
greater scientists can’t assure the future.
References
Finlay BL et al (2001), Developmental structure in brain evolution, Behavioral
and brain sciences 24, 263–308
2
Roth, G. and Dicke, U. (2005) Evolution of the brain and intelligence,
TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 9(5): 250-257
Saniotis and Henneberg (2011), Future Evolution of the Human Brain,
Journal of Futures Studies, 16(1): 1 - 18
4
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Kouprina, Natalay, Adam Pavlicek, Ganeshwaran H. Mochida, Gregory
Solomon, William Gersch, Young-Ho Yoon, Randall Collura, Maryellen Ruvolo,
J. Carl Barrett, C. Geoffrey Woods, Christopher H. Walsh, Jerzy Jurka,
Vladimir Larionov. "Accelerated Evolution of the ASPM Gene Controlling Brain
Size Begins Prior to Human Brain Expansion." PLoS Biology. May 2004.
6 Is the human brain still evolving?. 4 November 2012. Web.
<http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/brainevolution3.htm>.
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Saniotis and Henneberg (2011), Future Evolution of the Human Brain,
Journal of Futures Studies, 16(1): 1 - 18
8 Luke McNally, Sam P. Brown3 and Andrew L. Jackson (2012), Proc. R. Soc.
B 279 (1740), 3027-3034.
9
Wade, Nicholas. "Brain May Still Be Evolving, Studies Hint." New York Times.
Sept. 9, 2005. (Aug. 13, 2008)
0 http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/brainevolution3.htm
1 http://discovermagazine.com/2010/sep/25-modern-humans-smart-whybrain-shrinking
2 David Geary and Drew Bailey. Hominid Brain Evolution. Human Nature,
(in press)
13 Evolution of the brain. Web. 2 December 2012.
<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u85MxtyEl68 >.
14 Kurzweil, Ray. The singularity is near: when humans transcend biology.
London:
Duckworth. 2005. Print.
15
Hominidés. Web. 30 November 2012.
<http://www.hominides.com/html/dossiers/alimentation-prehistoirenutrition-prehistorique.php >.
16
Academia.edu.
Web.
1
December
2012.
<http://www.academia.edu/1929994/Does_Human_Memory_Reflect_t
he_
Environment_of_Early_Hominids> .
17
Homo
habilis
nutrition.
Web
3
December
2012.
<http://www.hominides.com/html/dossiers/alimentation-prehistoire-nutritionprehistorique.php>.
18
Homo habilis nutritional habits. Web. 3 December 2012.
<http://www2.csdm.qc.ca/LPage/sds/histoire/HomoHabilis.htm>.
19 Prefrontal cortex. Web. 29 Novemebr 2012
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex >.
20 Neurons. Web. 29 November 2012.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurons>.
21 Capacities of the human brain. Web. 5 December 2012.
<http://psycnet.apa.org/books/10871/ >.
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