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“Engage and Inspire the European Youth in the Space Exploration through a Scientific Contest” Coordination and Support Action FP7- 284442 Project Worksheet Name of the project Odysseus Contest You are strongly advised to submit alongside your Project the form you will find below. Please take into consideration the following suggestions in order to complete the form correctly and make a valuable application. All parts of the form must be filled in. The project worksheet could be completed in any EU official language Write your text in the respective boxes provided in each section. The sizes of the boxes in each section are indicative of the length of each section. The overall content of the worksheet should not exceed 2,500 words. The maximum length of each section is shown in the beginning of the section. Plain text should not be written using upper case. For plain text we suggest you use font “Tahoma”, size “12” and line spacing “1.5”. Replace the title “Project Title” and the footer “Name of the project” with the title of your project. Add the category you are competing in along with the name of your team and the names of team members and the coach. In all boxes remove the guidelines before adding your text. Good Luck! Name of the project 2 Odysseus Contest Project Title Competing Category: i. Solar System ii. Spaceship global cooperation iii. Co-evolution of life Χ Name of the Team:kollegio psychikou gymnasio Team members’ names: Emfietzoglou Rodopi, Zioga Daphne Skylouraki Konstadina, Papa Theodora, Coach’s name: Kontostavlaki Dimitra Abstract (limit 200 words). This project’s topic is the evolution of the brain. Having in mind the fact that humans have been becoming more and more intelligent over the years, we hypothesized that in the future, the human brain will be evolving. It was thought that the way in which this can be proved, is the following. An extensive study of the evolution of humans even from the prehistoric period (homo erectus, homo habilis, homo sapiens), a close investigation of intelligence, of the role of technology and genes, as well as external factors that affected the evolution of the brain, are the necessary steps that should be followed in order for one to reach the desirable and accurate conclusions. Notably, the relationship between human evolution of the brain and technology is stressed. The conclusions that have been drawn are based on the fact that the human brain will be evolving in the future. Introduction – Description of the Problem (limit 200 words) In the animal kingdom, all living organisms show intelligence and humans are considered to exhibit the highest expression. However, it is not easy to define the term intelligence in a way that it can be applied to all animals. It has been described as the speed and success of problem solving in order to survive or as the mental and behavioral flexibility of an organism that helps him adapt to a new situation. Intelligence is considered to be related to the size of brain, cortex and the number of cortical neurons. From anthropological studies, it has been shown that the size of human brain has increased largely from Australopithecus to our early Homo ancestors. Factors that have influenced the evolution of the human brain are related to behavioral and environmental changes and challenges, such as finding food, altering diet, using language, Name of the project 3 Odysseus Contest constructing and using tools and socialization1. The main focus of this project is to study whether factors of the modern society can affect the evolution of modern humans’ brain. More specifically, we would like to study whether the increased use of technology in every aspect of our life can lead to an increase in human intelligence or whether the human brain will stop evolving due to the fact that technology often “substitutes” human brain functions and leads to a decrease in socialization. Moreover, the effect of diet on human brain evolution will be studied. Hypothesis – Initial Ideas (limit 200 words) Our main hypothesis regarding the evolution of human brain is that in a few years’ time, the human brain will be functioning with a greater level of intelligence and won’t be overpassed by technology. Other environmental stimuli and changes in alimentation may lead to changes in specific parts of the brain, such as growth of the prefrontal cortex and increased interactions of neurons. The prefrontal cortex is the interior part of the frontal lobes of the brain, responsible for cognitive and social behavior, personality expression and decision making19, while the neurons are an excitable cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. Thanks to them, motor coordination, perception, retention of memories, acquisition of vocabulary and the ability to develop patterns of thought are accomplished20. We believe that the above mentioned factors will induce changes to human brain that will mainly involve alterations of the existing neuronal networks and connections and not a decrease in the size of the cortex. Project Methodology (limit 450 words) In this project, concerning the evolution of human brain, we used various resources to find the information through which we could answer our main question. It was not feasible to use any experimental procedures to test our hypothesis since evolution needs hundreds of years, or even more, to take place. Both electronic and printed sources were used. After going through the contents of the books and the basic information in the websites, we decided that our research was going to be based on the following categories: 1. The evolution of the human brain 2. Alterations in anatomical parts of the human brain with specific focus Name of the project 4 Odysseus Contest on those related to intelligence 3. Factors of the modern society that could alter brain structure and function The bases of our research were the following facts: a) Man has been becoming more and more intelligent over the years b) Humans first appeared millions years ago c) Ever since, the brain has been evolving Conduction of Research (limit 450 words) 1. Evolution of the human brain The brain’s prototype developed in the first primitive sea creatures like the sea-squirt. Its simple nervous system is a set of specialized cells, prickling with electricity. Within the sea-squirts embryo, these cells form a tube. Then, about five million years ago, the cortex appeared in the early man. Its surface was organized into columns which enabled memory storage, learning, planning. At that time, the first brain appeared in the African savannah and weighed less than a pound. Within three million years, the early hominids were making tools (Homo habilis=tool-maker). His brain was about ½ pound heavier than its ancestors’. Afterwards, 1.8 million years ago, Homo erectus appeared and the brain nearly doubled in size. He is thought to have developed key innovations that help him to thrive (including hunting large prays, using of fire and social bunds). 100,000 years ago, Homo sapiens’s brain weighed 3 pounds and it was four times larger and three times bigger than its prototype15. While homo sapiens was sharing the world with the Neanderthals, which are our European cousins who died as modern humans spread from Africa into Europe, during the Ice Age. Furthermore, in Europe the landscape was changing from ice-covered tundra to thick forests. 14 In humans, the old parts of the brain oversee emotion, help build memories Name of the project 5 Odysseus Contest and control breathing. The oldest and smallest region in the evolving human brain is the brainstem. Thanks to it, we get the traits of cold-blooded behavior, the desire for top-down hierarchy and an obsession with ritual. Human motivational, affective, behavioral and cognitive systems have evolved to possess social and ecological information that was connected to survival or reproductive options during human evolution. The parts of the brain that have evolved the most in human beings are in the prefrontal cortex. 16 2. Alterations in anatomical parts of the human brain with specific focus on those related to intelligence It has been stated that the size of the brain and the size of the cortex are indicators of intelligence and could explain the enhanced intelligence exhibited by humans. However, absolute brain size, relative brain size (brain size in relation to body size), cortex size and encephalization cannot directly explain human intelligence since it has been shown that elephants have larger brains than humans2. On the other hand, a distinct difference of human brain when compared to other mammals is the density of neurons and their connections 2. The main reason that the prefrontal cortex is larger in humans than other primates is that humans have a larger volume of white matter3. The white matter consists of myelin covered axons that assist the communication with other parts of the brain. Factors that have induced an increase of human brain and thus of the intelligence are stated to include hunting, use of fire, change of diet and social lives. Factors of the modern society that could alter brain structure and function involve Technology There is a growing body of evidence that modern technological devices are altering the human brain. It is stated that human exposure to computers, twittering, and text messaging can accelerate learning by rewiring neural circuitry4. In a recent study of internet searching, volunteers aged between 55 Name of the project 6 Odysseus Contest and 76 years were asked to practice searching the internet while another group was told not to search. By using magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to scan the subjects' brains, they found that the individuals who used the internet had approximately twice the amount of brain activity the other group. This study offers a clear indication of neuroplasticity of the brain, even in adults. Genes Lahn has identified that there are two genes related to brain size, although their exact role has not yet been clarified. These genes are microcephalin and ASPM (abnormal spindle-like microcephaly associated)5-6. It has been found that the microcephalin allele arose about 37,000 years ago, around the time when human art and other modern human behaviours emerged. In addition the ASPM allele arose approximately 5,800 years ago when there was an increase in writing, the formation of cities, complex societies, and civilisation. Furthermore, the ASPM allele suggests that the human brain is still evolving7. Diet Analyzing the fossilized teeth of our ancestors using scanning electronic microscopy, we observe enamel stripes caused by chewing. The existence of large vertical roots shows a diet reach in meat, while the horizontal one a diet rich in vegetables. The chemical composition of teeth and bones reveals the following about the diet of Paleolithic people: In the northern regions, where vegetation was rare, diet was based only on meat (provision of proteins) Consumption of dairy food Consumption of plants, seeds and herbivores (provision of strontium and calcium) Name of the project 7 Odysseus Contest Stone Age Neolithic Age Industrial revolution Increase in consumption of meat, eggs and fish Consumption of fruit and vegetable (provision of fiber) Introduction of cereal and milk “fresh product” is imported Agriculture and stock raising People receive 3 to 10 times more vitamins that today Consumption of mashed potatoes Sugar food with more fat (bad saturated fatty acids), salt, preservatives, less fiber Diabetes, heart disease Increase in caries (first tooth surgery 9.000 years ago) From the above table, it is clarified that after the industrial revolution, humans damaged their healthy habits concerning their alimentation, even though the first alerting signs were noticed during the Neolithic Age, due to changes in environmental factors. Although, in the Stone Age, people had minimal knowledge of food, it appears that they followed a healthier lifestyle. The last 60 years, the average IQ index increases by about 20 points in each generation and new research promotes the position that diet is mainly responsible for the increase of intelligence, because it increases the volume of the skull and therefore the size of brain. Some studies show that people who eat a diet rich in iron and zinc, have higher score on intelligence tests, while other studies have linked increased intelligence with a diet that contains enough doses of the fat presented in fish-specific fatty acids omega3 . Indeed the fatty acids omega3 play an important role in the development of the outer membrane of brain cells, through which pass all signals from the nerves. These are the ways by which diet influence intelligence: 1. Brain cells as each cell of our body need "fuel" to function. The fuel of the brain is glucose, which is obtained mainly from carbohydrates. 2. The myelin sheath, the thin outer membrane of brain need proteins and fatty acids, in order to create new connections and accelerate the transmission of electrical messages through the axons of the brain The lack of fatty acids in the diet, for example, can cause slowing of associations and thoughts. 3. Neurotransmitters, substances such as serotonin, dopamine Name of the project 8 Odysseus Contest and nor epinephrine act as conduits messages from one cell to another and affect our mood, our thoughts and our actions. Thus, some components of foods can help us sharpen our thinking, feeling optimistic or maintain a cool head.17, 18 Social interactions The evolution of intelligence and larger brain sizes can be driven by cooperation and teamwork. The social strategies that emerge spontaneously in these bigger, more intelligent brains show complex memory and decision making 8. Analysis of Data (limit 500 words) One way to determine if brain evolution will happen in the future, is to consider how our brain evolved in the past. There do not exist fossils of human brains and in that way researchers can only study cranial capacities and structures in order to make speculations regarding the evolution of human brain. Taking into account all the data presented above, it is considered an undeniable fact that technology, either referring to the use of fire or use of modern technology, has influenced the structure and capacities of human brain. Environmental and behavioral changes have led to human brain evolution and an increase of brain size and more importantly increase in interneuronal connections between different regions of the brain. In the modern society, the amount and speed of stimuli that are received by the humans and analyzed by the human brain have highly been increased. Studies have shown that the use of technology increases neuronal connections which could lead to enhancement of human intelligence. In that sense we would expect human brains to become bigger. However, if our brain did get bigger, other organs would have to grow as well, particularly the heart in order to pump all the necessary nutrients to the brain. For the brain to assess more information, the connections between brain cells would have to become wider. However, to support that, more myelin would be needed, as well as more blood flow to the brain to support these connections. That, in turn, leaves less room for the expanded connections9-10. On the other hand, it has been stated that a shrinkage on human brain could be a possible evolutionary trend since larger brains take longer to develop and consume more energy. Thus, shrinkage of human brains could be a sign of energy conservation and highest efficiency. Surprisingly, according to Name of the project 9 Odysseus Contest Hawk, based on skull measurements, the human brain appears to have been shrinking over the last 5,000 or so years11. This shrinkage is roughly 10%. He interpreted this due to the fact that nowadays humans specialize our behavior and rely on others, so maybe we don’t need our brain so much. Another perspective is that the energy demands of the brain are less when it is shrinking. Apart from the increased number of information that must be processed everyday by humans, the increased social competition of the modern society can also lead to increased neuronal connections and thus intelligence of human brain. A study made at the University of Missouri revealed that social competition was one of the main factors that led to increased cranial capacity 12. Discussion of the Findings (limit 300 words) Bringing our final results from the bibliographic research into discussion, it appears that the abilities of the human brain are finite. However, there are definitely possibilities of intellectual development into the near future and this is illustrated by the fact that at the present time humans use only 2% of these abilities offered according to scientists. There are even those who suggest development of all the human brain or at least of a big part in a few years’ time. But, based on this assumption, we should also take into consideration that nowadays humans assign more and more manual work and other functions to technological machines, which means that they have ended up being depended on technology. It is stated that the capacities of human brain will be overwhelmed by computers by 2040. As a result of the previous observation, humans hold a big untapped portion of brain matter, that will inevitably lead to atrophy. Moreover, the computer power has increased a lot over the last 10 years and as Andrew McLuhan had once pointed out: “First we built tools, then they built us”. And to make things worse, we shouldn’t forget that history always repeats itself. So, we are inclined to believe that as the human brain grew bigger and bigger over the centuries, it is foreseeable in the future to become again that small like the one homo habilis used to have.21 Conclusions (limit 200 words) From all our bibliographic research regarding the issue of the future evolution Name of the project 10 Odysseus Contest of the human intelligence, we have come up with the following conclusions. To begin with, it can be argued that the relationship between the human brain and technology is a relationship of interaction, because as proven humans first created and used the term “technology”, while nowadays technology seems to motivate and define the human knowledge, although many people would contradict that humans equipped technological machines with this ability. However, as shown from our final results, it is likely for the human kind to become more intelligent, if specific parameters are taken into consideration. For example, people are required to follow a balanced lifestyle, similar to their ancestors, especially in the sector of alimentation, since humans’ eating habits were damaged after the Industrial Revolution and the introduction of fat food. In addition, the stimuli the people are going to receive from their surroundings and the environmental factors that are likely to go through changes in a few years’ time, play a really important role to the question we are studying. In other words, the brain will be able to back itself up, and parts will be repaired or replaced. But of course no one, even the greater scientists can’t assure the future. References Finlay BL et al (2001), Developmental structure in brain evolution, Behavioral and brain sciences 24, 263–308 2 Roth, G. and Dicke, U. (2005) Evolution of the brain and intelligence, TRENDS in Cognitive Sciences, 9(5): 250-257 Saniotis and Henneberg (2011), Future Evolution of the Human Brain, Journal of Futures Studies, 16(1): 1 - 18 4 5 Kouprina, Natalay, Adam Pavlicek, Ganeshwaran H. Mochida, Gregory Solomon, William Gersch, Young-Ho Yoon, Randall Collura, Maryellen Ruvolo, J. Carl Barrett, C. Geoffrey Woods, Christopher H. Walsh, Jerzy Jurka, Vladimir Larionov. "Accelerated Evolution of the ASPM Gene Controlling Brain Size Begins Prior to Human Brain Expansion." PLoS Biology. May 2004. 6 Is the human brain still evolving?. 4 November 2012. Web. <http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/brainevolution3.htm>. Name of the project 11 Odysseus Contest 7 Saniotis and Henneberg (2011), Future Evolution of the Human Brain, Journal of Futures Studies, 16(1): 1 - 18 8 Luke McNally, Sam P. Brown3 and Andrew L. Jackson (2012), Proc. R. Soc. B 279 (1740), 3027-3034. 9 Wade, Nicholas. "Brain May Still Be Evolving, Studies Hint." New York Times. Sept. 9, 2005. (Aug. 13, 2008) 0 http://science.howstuffworks.com/life/inside-the-mind/human-brain/brainevolution3.htm 1 http://discovermagazine.com/2010/sep/25-modern-humans-smart-whybrain-shrinking 2 David Geary and Drew Bailey. Hominid Brain Evolution. Human Nature, (in press) 13 Evolution of the brain. Web. 2 December 2012. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u85MxtyEl68 >. 14 Kurzweil, Ray. The singularity is near: when humans transcend biology. London: Duckworth. 2005. Print. 15 Hominidés. Web. 30 November 2012. <http://www.hominides.com/html/dossiers/alimentation-prehistoirenutrition-prehistorique.php >. 16 Academia.edu. Web. 1 December 2012. <http://www.academia.edu/1929994/Does_Human_Memory_Reflect_t he_ Environment_of_Early_Hominids> . 17 Homo habilis nutrition. Web 3 December 2012. <http://www.hominides.com/html/dossiers/alimentation-prehistoire-nutritionprehistorique.php>. 18 Homo habilis nutritional habits. Web. 3 December 2012. <http://www2.csdm.qc.ca/LPage/sds/histoire/HomoHabilis.htm>. 19 Prefrontal cortex. Web. 29 Novemebr 2012 <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prefrontal_cortex >. 20 Neurons. Web. 29 November 2012. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurons>. 21 Capacities of the human brain. Web. 5 December 2012. <http://psycnet.apa.org/books/10871/ >. Name of the project 12