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IB Exam Review
World War I
Causes of WWI
How did the Long Term Causes of WWI Cause War?
Awful Governments

Few countries were democracies – many were autocracies

Italy was corrupt

Germany – Wilhelm was mad

Russia – tsar was weak

Turkey – was falling apart
Nationalism

Intense national pride

Many peoples wanted self-determination

Panslavism
Imperialism

British Empire covered a fifth of the world

Belief in superiority

Fight for resources mainly in Asia and Africa, but also Latin America and Middle East

Wilhelm wanted ‘a place in the sun’
Militarism

Germany’s Navy Law 1900

Germany’s Schlieffen Plan – was no secret that Germany had plans to attack France through
Belgium (Russia mobilized faster than Germany anticipated, drawing German resources away
from Western Front and creating a stalemate in France)

Standing, professionally trained armies

Military was not just an arms race, it was a valid means of foreign policy

New Weapons - Submarines, dreadnoughts, zeppelins, airplanes, tanks, machine guns, etc
Alliances

European countries thought alliance system would be a deterrent to war

Triple Alliance

Triple Entente

Confrontation at Algeciras

Assassination and ‘blank cheque’ lead to ultimatum
Events







Boer War (1899-1900)
German Navy Law (1900)
First Moroccan Crisis (1905-06)
Bosnian Crisis (1908-09)
Agadir Crisis (1911)
Balkan Wars (1912-13)
Assassination at Sarajevo (1914)
IB Exam Review
World War I
Trench Life During WWI
What was Trench Life like during WWI?
Conditions

Conditions in the trenches were unimaginably bad

Constant fear of attack, stench of dead bodies and site of rats feeding on corpses

Bitterly cold in winter, horribly hot in summer

Trenches were mainly in low-lying land, so soldiers were often up to knees in water or sewage,
leading to trench foot
Mental Torture

For much of the time life was boring, on guard duty or repairing or digging trenches

When fighting took place casualties were great

Shelling, gas attacks and conditions led to nervous breakdowns. Initially soldiers were shot for
refusal to obey orders, but later shell-shock was officially recognized
Frontlines

It was clear defense was far easier than offense

In some places the frontlines were very close (20 yards). Even the slightest movement could
result in instant death via sniper

Other areas the gap could be much wider (1/2 mile or more). Unofficial truces were sometimes
agreed upon
No Man’s Land

The ground separating the opposing trenches

Both sides put up barbed wire defenses and laid mines in front of their trenches to prevent
attacks

Before attacks, whistles were blown and troops were ordered to advance across No Man’s Land
– called going ‘over the top’
Artillery Barrages

Both sides tried to destroy the opposing trenches in immense artillery barrages

This was often inaccurate and caused huge craters in No Man’s Land

Heavy shelling always took place before each major attack, but usually failed to destroy trenches
or barbed wire defenses
The Somme

The front line at the beginning of a major battle suffered terribly

At the Battle of the Somme (July 1916) 70% of the troops who went over the top in the first
wave were killed or wounded

Many of the casualties were part of Pals’ Battalions (English)
IB Exam Review
World War I
US Involvement in WWI
How and Why did the US get Involved in WWI?
Anti-War

Until 1916, the US under Woodrow Wilson held a strong anti-war position

US made it clear that it did not wish to get involved in European affairs
US Benefits

While Europe was involved in war, US was able to make technological and trade gains on
European competitors

US filled trade markets left empty by alliance system and also developed new techniques and
technology
Large War Loans

Yet by 1917, US had lent large sums of money to Britain and France

There was increasing sympathy for Britain and France from within the US, seen as fellow
democratic countries
Submarine Warfare

In 1915, a German U-boat sunk the liner Lusitania, resulting in many US deaths. This had a
profound impact on public opinion about the war

In March 1917, Germany began unrestricted U-boat warfare, four US ships were sunk

The US prepared for war
Zimmerman Telegram

Early 1917 – America’s reason for declaring war. Britain intercepted a telegram and showed it
to the US

The telegram was from the German foreign minister to his counterpart in Mexico

It suggested that Mexico should attack America if war broke out
Effect of US Involvement

In April 1917, US declared war on Germany

Germany made repeated attempts to finish the war before US troops arrived

A huge moral boost for the Allies (the yanks are comin’), the US soldiers showed immense
bravery but weren’t fully prepared for modern warfare and suffered high casualty rates
American soldiers in France, 1917
IB Exam Review
World War I
Technology and Tactics
Why was WWI so Different than Previous Wars?
Defensive War

Development of new weapons technology meant WWI became a defensive war

The development of machine guns made traditional methods of attack impossible

Attempts to break the stalemate with heavy artillery failed, so both sides turned to new
technology
Gas



Poison chlorine gas was first used by the Germans at Ypres in 1915
Both sides used phosgene and mustard gas
The main weakness was that the wind could blow it back towards your own side
Tanks



Tanks were developed by the British and used in 1916 at the Battle of the Somme
Were initially very unreliable – breaking down – and horrible to drive
However they were a huge propaganda and morale boost, and proved to be very effective by the
end of the war
Sea



New and more powerful battleships – dreadnaughts – were developed but only involved at
Jutland
German submarines were a great threat, causing serious disruption
Following Lloyd George’s insistence, the convoy system was introduced
Air


Planes were initially used for reconnaissance and dropping bombs by hand, but technological
developments such as fixed machine guns made dogfights and attacks on enemy trenches
possible
German airships called Zeppelins began to bomb London and other cities
New Kind of Warfare

WWI saw death and destruction on a scale never experienced before

Technological developments were seen as vital to both sides, but each new weapon brought
further destruction

No one invention was decisive though as both sides quickly copied each other
British Mark I tank, Battle of the Somme, 1916
IB Exam Review
World War I
Germany at the End of WWI
How did WWI Affect People in Germany?
The German Empire

Germany before 1918 was an empire in the center of Europe

It was created in 1871, but it was already one of the most powerful states in the world

It was ruled by Kaiser Wilhelm II

The government did have some democratic features
Food Shortages

By the end of the war the German people were nearly starving

They lived on handouts of potatoes, turnips and sawdusty bread

Even basic foods were strictly rationed

The longer the war lasted, the more serious the shortages became
The Allied Naval Blockade

The British navy blockaded the sea approaches to Germany’s ports

This created food shortages and stopped basic supplies from overseas

British secret agents would report back to Britain about these shortages and the blockade’s
effects on Germany
Winter 1918

As winter approached in 1918 conditions grew much worse

Adults lived on 1000 calories a day – starvation level

Fuel shortages led to power cuts, factory closures and transportation problems

The flu virus swept across Germany killing thousands
Democracy?

With defeat close on the battlefields, and conditions poor at home, the German army asked for
peace

The allies agreed, but only if the Kaiser shared his power

This proved unpopular, and public opinion turned against the Kaiser

Revolution was being talked about
Revolution

The Naval Mutiny at Kiel was the catalyst for mass unrest

The Kaiser was losing control of the country as soldiers and workers rose against him

Wilhelm had to abdicate

Freidrich Ebert, leader of the Social Democratic Party, became head of the government
Freidrich Ebert, Chancellor of Germany, 1918-19, President of Weimar Republic 1919-25
IB Exam Review
World War I
International Crises, 1900-1913
How did international relations deteriorate, 1900-1913?
German Navy Law, 1900

Germany started building Dreadnought battleships

= Britain felt threatened

= alliances (Britain made an alliance with Japan, 1902, Entente with France, 1904)

= naval arms race (in 1909 the British public forced the government to build 8 dreadnoughts)
First Moroccan Crisis, 1906

Kaiser Wilhelm guaranteed the independence of Morocco – which France had hoped to conquer

= France and Britain were threatened

At Algeciras (1906) Britain, France and Russia forced Germany to back down (= international
humiliation for Germany)
Kaiser Wilhelm and Britain

In 1900 Kaiser Wilhelm openly supported the Boers in the Boer War

= Britain felt threatened

In 1906 Kaiser Wilhelm gave an interview to the Daily Telegraph saying the British were mad
and that many Germans disliked them

= British people were insulted
Bosnian Crisis, 1908

In 1908, Austria-Hungary took advantage of a rebellion to annex Bosnia

= Serbia was furious (many Bosnians were Serbs)

Serbia asked Russia to help, but France and Britain would not support Nicholas II, who had to
back down (= Russia was humiliated and resentful)
Agadir, 1911

In 1911, when France took advantage of a rebellion to take over Morocco, Kaiser Wilhelm sent
the gunship Panther into Agadir harbor in Morocco

= Britain and France were alarmed

they forced Germany to back down (= Kaiser Wilhelm was humiliated and resentful)
Balkan Wars

In 1912, the Balkan League (Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria) drove Turkey out of Europe

= Austria felt threatened

In 1913, Serbia and Bulgaria went to war, but Germany and Britain stopped it

= Russia had failed Serbia again

= Germany thought Britain was a friend
IB Exam Review
Stalin
Stalin’s Economic Policy
Stalin’s Economic Policy – Success or Failure?
Five Year Plans

Private trade was banned

Coal, Oil, Gas, and Engineering

GOSPLAN (committee responsible for economic planning)

Individual targets set for factories

New cities ‘created’ – Magnitogorsk

KOMSOMOL – youth wing of the communist party (taught values of the party)

Gulag – the government agency that administered the penal camps

Stakhanovites – ‘hero’ miner, symbolized hard work ethic
Success?

Huge public work schemes

Education program

Industrial output expanded

Russia survived WWII
Failure?

Human cost – 10 – 40 million deaths

Overcrowding in cities

Production focused on heavy industry and military

Figures were unreliable

Quantity, not quality

No criticism allowed
Collectivization

Small farms were joined together (Sovkhozes –state farms, and Kolkhozes – collective farms)

To improve efficiency

Destroy Kulaks – class of independent peasant farmers who resisted collectivization

Increase Stalin’s control of countryside

Increase grain production to sell abroad for foreign currencies
Success?

By 1940 99% of land was collectivized

Production did increase (wheat up 33%)

New modern equipment and chemicals

Education programs in collectives

Red Army was fed during WWII

Kulaks were destroyed
Failure?

1932-33 famine (5 million dead)

Human cost – 10 million peasants deported

Sovkhozes were a failure

Unpopular
IB Exam Review
Germany 1919-1929
Post-War Germany 1919
What problems did the new democratic Weimar Government face?
Association with Defeat

The Republic was associated with the defeat of Germany as the Kaiser had fled before the end

Many leaders connected with the end of the war went on to form the Weimar Govt. in 1919

many Germans believed they had been ‘stabbed in the back’
Rebuilding Germany

After 4 years of war Germany was devastated. The country needed to be re-built

Returning soldiers needed jobs but there was poverty and unemployment
The Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty didn’t take into consideration Germany’s weak position and sought to punish her

The terms were relatively harsh, particularly the reparations

The ‘Guilt Clause’ humiliated the country

The Weimar government was associated with all of this
Political Uprisings

The discontent gave rise to political extreme groups

There were attempts to overthrow the government by these groups called Putches e.g. Kapp and
Munich Putsch

There was a lot of violence and there were several murders of key political figures
Economic Problems

After the war Germany was bankrupt

In 1921 they were faced with the reparations bill. They paid until 1923

Invasion of the Ruhr worsened the crisis. Germany suffered from inflation

The government responded by printing more money, but this led to hyperinflation
The Occupation of the Ruhr

When Germany could no longer keep up with repayments French and Belgian troops marched
into the most important industrial region

People (Germans) in this area refused to cooperate. Passive resistance led to further decline of
the area’s industry, more unemployment, and poverty
50 million mark bill from 1923
IB Exam Review
Germany 1919-1929
Weimar in Crisis 1919-1923
Why was 1919-1923 a period of crisis for the Weimar government?
A Bad Start

Germany had no tradition of democracy and had always had strong leaders. Germans weren’t
ready for democracy

Germans had suffered very badly because of the war. Many were starving and many were
furious at the loss of the war – they blamed the new government (rightly or wrongly)
Lack of Consensus

There were huge political divisions in German society

Opinion was polarized with extremists on the left (Spartacists and socialists), and on the right,
(nationalists and conservatives) both getting a lot of support

There were many other small political parties
Weimar Constitution

Proportional representation meant that the lack of political consensus was reflected closely in
elected parties

There were many political parties and frequent changes of government

It was very difficult to establish stability or even get laws passed
Versailles Treaty

The Treaty had been very hard on Germany and the Weimar Government had been forced to
accept it

Many Germans hated and resented the loss of territory, the reparations and the war guilt clause

It wasn’t their fault but the Weimar Government tended to get the blame
Extremist Attacks

The Spartacists Rebellion 1919

The Munich Communist Soviet 1919

The right wing Kapp Putsch 1920

The assassination of foreign minister Rathenau 1922

Hitler’s failed Munich Putsch 1923
Crisis by 1923

1922 reparations crisis

France invaded the rich industrial Ruhr area in retaliation

Weimar ordered passive resistance on the part of Germans in the Ruhr

Weimar printed more money to try to solve the problem (hyperinflation)

Hitler’s Munich Putsch
IB Exam Review
Germany 1919-1929
The Nazi Party
How and why did Hitler change the Nazi Party 1919-1925?
Birth of the Nazi Party

1919 Hitler joined the German Workers Party

In 1920 the name changes to NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers Party) and adopted
the 25 point program (nationalistic, self-determinationistic, welfareistic and anti-Semitic)

Hitler became leader in 1921 and adopted the swastika emblem

Hitler then set up the SA (brownshirts) as a private ‘army’
Munich Putsch 1923

When the French invaded the Ruhr Hitler decided to try and seize power

He planned to first take the Bavarian government and then march on Berlin (modeled after
Mussolini)

Hitler took over a Bavarian government meeting but couldn’t get enough support

His march was stopped by armed police
Aftermath of Munich Putsch

Hitler ran away but was later arrested and charged with treason

He used his trial to make long public speeches which were widely and sympathetically reported

He got a very lenient sentence of 5 years in Landsberg Prison where he wrote Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf

Aryan race is the master race (social Darwinism)

Aryans should have ‘lebensraum’ (living space) in a new German Empire

Third Reich (1 – Holy Roman Empire 2 – Bismarck’s German Empire with AH)

All other races inferior (especially Jews)

Treaty of Versailles should be reversed, and Germany and Austria should join (Anschluss)
The Nazi Lean Years

Germany did well under Stresemann – support for extremists declined

Hitler served 9 months in prison during which time the Nazi Party had split and support declined
dramatically

He decided to reform the party on his release in Dec 1924
Hitler’s Reform of the Party

1925 Hitler reorganized and relaunched the NSDAP

Power was concentrated in the leader. Special sections set up for students, teachers, Youth and
farmers

Party branches in all major towns – soon 100,000 members

Hitler decided to use elections, not revolution
IB Exam Review
Germany 1919-1929
The Stresemann Years
Why was 1924-1929 a period of recovery for Germany?
Worldwide Economy

Worldwide economic recovery meant that there were new markets for German goods abroad

The economy prospered and unemployment was low
Political Stability

As prosperity increased support for the extremists like Communists and Nazis declined.
Moderate pro-Weimar parties tended to win elections

The very able Gustav Stresemann remained as Foreign Minister throughout the whole period
Rentenmark

The new German currency established by Stresemann and regulated by the central bank solved
the problem of hyperinflation

Confidence returned to the German economy
International Cooperation

Stresemann knew Germany had to work with other countries

Dawes Plan 1924 which made the reparations payments easier (French troops left the Ruhr as a
result)

Locarno Pact 1925 settled border disputes

1926 Germany joins the League of Nations and gains respectability

1929 Young Plan replaces the Dawes Plan – reparations reduced by one quarter, Germany given
58 years to pay

American banks continued to loan German industry money to help it rebuild
Where did it all go wrong?

Stresemann died in October 1929 (most notable politician of his generation)

Closely followed by the Wall Street Crash

American banks recalled their loans to Germany

German economy plunged back into crisis
Gustav Stresemann, 1920
IB Exam Review
Hitler
Rise to Power
How and Why did Hitler become Chancellor?
The Beer Hall Putsch

1923 saw Hitler’s first attempt at seizing power with the Nazi party

Hitler was imprisoned for treason and reconsidered his political strategy

Hitler dictated Mein Kampf while in prison and decided that the Nazis had to gain power legally
through elections
Violence

Hitler’s SA or brownshirts were used to intimidate opponents and drum up support

Running street battles were fought with rivals from the Communist party

Violence and rivalry were central to Nazi philosophy of survival of the fittest

Ernst Rohm led the SA for the Nazi party
Hitler, the ‘Political Genius’

Hitler had an undoubted ability for public speaking and an understanding of ordinary peoples’
desires

Hitler had ‘his finger on the pulse of Germany’ – Walden

The vision was highlighted in Mein Kampf

Single-mindedness

‘Enter the Reichstag holding our noses’
The Wall Street Crash and Looming Depression

Disastrous for Germany – 6 million unemployed

Second major economic catastrophe for the Weimar Republic

Soon became a political crisis as 3 chancellors in 2 years could not solve the problems of
Germany (Bruning, Schleicher, Von Rapen)

Hitler was seen as ‘the last hope’
Attractive Policies

Hitler appealed to many sections of society

‘Rip up the Treaty of Versailles’

‘Work, freedom and bread’

Sort out the Communists

Guaranteed farm prices

Regain national pride

All of these things were attractive to ordinary Germans
Divided Opponents

Hitler should have been kept from power, he never did gain an overall majority

But the Communists and Socialists were divided

Parties squabbled over how to deal with the depression

January 1933 Hitler is invited as Chancellor in an attempt to control him and the Nazis
Hitler ran for President Feb – April 1932 against Hindenburg and lost, but earned 35% of the vote,
making him a viable political choice for the future of Germany. Appointed Chancellor in January 1933.
IB Exam Review
Hitler
From Chancellor to Dictator
How did Hitler take control of Germany 1933-1934?
Hitler Becomes Chancellor

January 30 1933

Hitler was in a weak position because he could be dismissed by Hindenburg (other Chancellors
hadn’t lasted long!)

Hitler cooperates closely with Hindenburg
Concentration Camps

February 1933 – concentration camps are opened

Political opponents were put in these camps, beaten and forced to do hard labor unless they
agreed to cooperate with the Nazis

Mainly Communists arrested
The Reichstag Fire

February 27 1933 – Reichstag burns down a week before a general election is supposed to take
place

Dutch Communist arrested – Marius van der Lubbe

Conspiracy Theories abound today - Some say Hitler had the fire started

Hitler says it is a Communist plot and arrests 4000 Communists, declares state of emergency

Communists banned from the election
Death of Hindenburg

August 2 1934

Hindenburg dies (of natural causes) – Hitler immediately takes over his role as President

Hitler declares himself to be Fuhrer (leader) of Germany (he was both President and Chancellor)

German armed forces swear oath of allegiance to Hitler (in return for stopping the SA from
taking over the army)
Night of the Long Knives

June 30 1934

Hitler saw the SA and its leader Rohm as an internal threat – they numbered over 2 million and
Rohm also wanted to take over the army

SS arrests leaders of the SA and other political figures e.g. von Schleicher (previous Chancellor)
SA was more like an independent military whereas SS were like Hitler’s personal police and
bodyguards

Rohm was brutally executed along with at least 85 others
The Enabling Act

March 24 1933, previous March elections had seen Nazis win 52% of the vote

Gave Hitler emergency powers to pass laws without the Reichstag

SS and SA surround the building to intimidate politicians

Hitler could pass any law he wanted

July 14 1933 – Hitler rules that the Nazis were the only legal party in Germany

Trade unions are banned
IB Exam Review
Hitler
Nazi Rule in Germany
What were the Secrets of the Success of the Nazis?
Propaganda

Permeated every aspect of Nazi Germany

Ministry of Propaganda under Goebbels (“The Poison Dwarf”)

Radio was the most effective medium – cheap “People’s Radio”

German culture, music, etc used to give the feeling of continuity

Film, architecture also used
The Fuhrer

Portrayed in propaganda as the “savior of the nation”

Encouraged competition between his underlings (intentionalist view)

Competition / inefficiency came from the structure of the Hitler state (structuralist view)

Conclusions tricky due to nature of dictatorship
The Workers

Least likely group to support Nazis

Trade unions abolished in first months of Nazi rule

Workers’ parties (SPD and KPD) banned / imprisoned

Bribed with May Day holiday, “Strength through Joy” holidays, etc

Reduction in unemployment was a key factor in support
The Economy

Huge reduction in unemployment 1933-1939

Massive boost for industry through rearmament

Economic policies were inflationary but kept under control because workers had no right to
strike or bargain for higher pay

Policies stored up trouble for the future
Foreign Policy

Most successful policy until 1939 – restoration of national pride

Expansionist policy because of Hitler’s ideology and the need for economic resources (see
economy)

Very aggressive
A Police State?

All opposition liquidated or bought off

Local government replaced by Nazi organizations

Opposition within the Nazi Party eliminated by force

SS became dominant force, controlled every aspect of ‘police state’

Complicity – “willing executioners”?
IB Exam Review
Hitler
Women in Nazi Germany
What was it like for women in Nazi Germany?
Education

Girls from the age of 10 joined the Jungmadel (Hitler Youth)

From 14 they entered the bund Deutscher Madel (German Girls’ League). They were taught
their role was as a good wife and mother and their place was in the home – 3 K’s: kinder, kuche,
kirche
Marriage

1933 – Law for the Encouragement of Marriage gives newlyweds a government loan of 1000
marks. This encouraged them to have children

1934 – 10 Commandments for Choice of Spouse encouraged people fitting the German ideal to
marry and keep race pure
Physical Constraints

Not allowed to wear make-up, have hair dyed or have perms

Only to wear flat shoes and only dresses, no pants

No dieting as it was thought to be unhealthy and would upset child-bearing

No smoking – seen as ‘un-German’

Long hair or put in bun or plaits
Employment

Women taken out of the labor market

1934 – women dismissed from the professions

1936 – women could not be judges or sit on jury

Women’s Bureau persuaded women to work for good of Nazi government

1937 – ‘Duty Year’ as skills shortage
Breeding Program

Women had a biological purpose

Medals for women who had more then 4 children

Encouraged unmarried women to have children (Lebensborn) where women were impregnated
by racially pure SS officers

Banned contraception and abortion

Sterilized racially ‘impure’
Opposition from Women

Large numbers of women joined Left wing political groups (illegal)

1933 Nazis opened first concentration camp for women at Moringen and followed with others
such as Ravensbruck

Some women committed suicide in opposition to Nazis
IB Exam Review
Hitler
Jews in Nazi Germany
From Boycott to Destruction
Jews were viewed as an inferior race of people
Hitler’s life had been difficult and he saw Jews as being responsible for this
Jews were the single cause of his suffering, tension and humiliations in life
Jews were a convenient scapegoat for all the troubles of German society
Boycott

April 1933 Hitler ordered the SA and SS to organize a boycott of Jewish shops and businesses
Laws


1934 – Jews were banned by public law from public places such as swimming pools and parks
Laws were also passed making it possible to fire teachers, civil servants and lawyers who
happened to be Jewish
Nuremberg Laws 1935

Very important because Hitler defined who was Jewish and thus defined his enemy

German citizenship removed from all Jews

Inter-racial marriage banned

1936 – further laws banning Jews from holding property and from working
Kristallnacht

November 1938 – first very public violent attack on Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues

Violence went on for over a week – around 100 Jews killed and 20,000 put in concentration
camps

Jews were then fined for the damage caused (1 billion marks)
Ghettos and the War

The outbreak of war intensified the attacks on the Jews

After the outbreak of war all Jews in occupied territories were forced to live in ghettos

In summer 1941 Himmler ordered SS “Special action groups” to kill all Soviet Jews
Final Solution / Destruction

Wannsee Conference in January 1942 – planned the destruction of all Jews in Europe

12 men (leading Nazis) headed by Adolph Eichmann planned the operation in intricate detail

Extermination camps set up in Eastern Europe

6 million Jews murdered
November 1938. Jews arrested during Kristallnacht line up for roll call at the
Buchenwald concentration camp
IB Exam Review
Hitler
Economic Policy
What was Hitler’s Economic Policy and was it a Success?
Hitler’s Aims

Drag Germany our of the world recession

Solve unemployment (which he had promised to do)

Make Germany an ‘autarchy’ – self sufficient

Get rid of Jewish industrialists and give their businesses to Aryans

Transform the economy to focus on rearmament / war
Unemployment: Success or Failure?

biggest inherited problem

Unemployment fell as economy improved

Work creation schemes offered temporary work on public facilities (like highways)

Nazis drove jobless figures down by banning Jews and women from working

Arms industries were labor intensive
Dr. Hjalmar Schacht

Directed German economy from 1933-1936

Believed in steady growth and a stable currency (like almost everyone else!)

Promoted trade agreements with developing countries

His New Plan of 1934 aimed to reduce imports into Germany and to strengthen the currency

Fell out with Hitler and was replaced by Goering
Hitler and Goering

German economy can be converted into a war machine

Germany must rearm quickly, conquer countries, takeover their economies, and move on

Conquered countries would give the master race ‘Lebensraum’ (elbow room or living space)

By exploiting conquered countries living standards at home were maintained
Goering’s 4 Year Plan 1936

Speed up rearmament and make Germany ready for war

Make Germany self sufficient in raw materials – ‘autarchy’ – by developing home grown
substitutions

In 1933 total money spent on the military was 1.9 million marks, by 1939 it was 32.3 million

Industrial targets set
Was it a Success or Failure?

Unemployment dropped quickly, wages rose slightly

Working hours went from 49 hours per week in 1939, 52 in 1943, to over 60 by 1945

There were fewer consumer goods

No trade union rights – replaced by ‘Strength Through Joy’ program – better leisure
opportunities like paid holidays
IB Exam Review
Hitler
Propaganda in Nazi Germany
How was Propaganda used in Nazi Germany from 1933-1939?
Party Display

Nuremberg Rallies (Goebbels and Speer)

Mass suggestion

Very emotional and atmospheric

‘The rallies expressed power, order, solemnity…’ (P. Adam)

Festivals

‘Burning of Books’ (May 1933)
Importance

Coercion and consensus

Used to achieve power in 1933

Targets – Jews, Socialists, Communists, etc

Used to mold the minds and lives of the people

Reinforced existing attitudes

Used to make the people aware of Nazi achievements
Party Agencies

Strength Through Joy

German Labour Front

Youth Movements

Reich Church

Professional Associations

Reich Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda

Reich Chamber of Culture

Central Propaganda Office of the Nazi Party
Broadcasting

Coordinated in 1933

Encouraged radio ownership through the mass production of cheap radios

by 1942 70% of households had a ‘Volksempfanger’ – ‘people’s receiver’

Communal listening to speeches
Culture

Supported Nazi ideology

Activities were coordinated through ‘chambers’ – Reich Culture Chamber, Reich Press Chamber

Standards set for art, music, literature
Press






End of independent press
‘Volkischer Beoachter’ – ‘national observer’
Coordination from 1933 to remove Jews and control editorial content
Nazi press empire under Max Amann
Pressures to buy / read
Decline in newspapers in circulation as Eher Verlag took over – Nazi central publishing co.
IB Exam Review
Cold War
The USA versus USSR
What were the Ideological Differences Between America and Russia in 1945?
Capitalism v Communism

Businesses / farms owned by private people

Profit is good – a reward for risk-bearing

VERSUS

Businesses and farms owned by the state and…

…run by the government for the benefit of all people

Profit is a form of oppression
Democracy v Dictatorship

Multi-party system

Free elections

Parliament (UK) / Congress (USA) make the laws – separate executive and legislative branches

VERSUS

Elections to the ‘Soviets’

One party only – the Communist party which…

…rules the country

Stalin de facto (in fact) an absolute dictator
Freedom v Human Rights

‘His Majesty’s Opposition’ – minority party in UK

Protests and demonstrations

Human rights respected in law

VERSUS

Dissidents imprisoned

KGB arrest grumblers

The gulag
Free Market v Command Economy

Laws of supply and demand control production

Competition keeps prices low and quality up – the weak go out of business

Strikes and unemployment

Freedom of choice

VERSUS

Workers ordered to a job / area

Wages and hours fixed by law

No unemployment – everyone has a job
Equal Opportunity v Equality

Everyone has a chance to succeed

Consumer economy

Great differences in wealth and class – millionaires v poverty

Private medicine, houses, etc (health care is very good, but very expensive)

VERSUS

Poor standard of living – ‘producer’ goods (goods made are good for the producer, not necessarily good for the consumer) /
empty shops

Fewer very poor people

Free health care / state-provided housing (health care is poor, but available to everyone)
Free Press v Censorship

Freedom of speech

Newspapers, books, radio / tv / films not censored

Media openly criticize government (Washington Post , New York Times)

VERSUS

No freedom of speech

The media are owned and run by the government

Censorship and propaganda (Pravda, Izvestia)
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Yalta and Potsdam 1
The origins of the Cold War – Yalta and Potsdam
Yalta



February 1945
Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill – the BIG THREE
Yalta – southern Soviet Union on the Baltic Sea
Agreement?

Germany to be divided into 4 zones, as would Berlin – GB, Fr, USA, USSR

Poland to gain land from Germany, but lose some to USSR

USSR to declare war on Japan 3 months after the end of European war

USSR guarantees free elections for Eastern Europe
Changes

On April 12, 1945 Roosevelt died

Roosevelt was replaced by Truman – an openly anti-communist

Truman said he would ‘get tough with the Russians’

During the Potsdam Conference, Churchill lost the election and was replaced by Attlee
Potsdam

July – August 1945, outside Berlin. Germany had been defeated

Change in the Big Three meant that the personalities had changed

Disagreements at this conference saw the beginnings of the Cold War
Agreement?

Plans for division of Germany agreed, Germany to pay reparations (USSR), war criminals to be
tried, and United Nations set up

Truman demanded USSR hold free elections for Eastern Europe

Stalin angry that Truman didn’t mention the atomic bomb which Stalin secretly knew about
Iron Curtain

One year later Stalin set up the Iron Curtain

Term coined by Winston Churchill in speech at Fulton, Missouri in 1946

Border between East and West Europe – Stalin took control of Eastern Europe to act as a buffer
zone to any future invasion from the West
Yalta 1945, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin
Potsdam 1945, Attlee, Truman and Stalin
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Yalta and Potsdam 2
How were the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences Different?
Context
Yalta

Held in the Crimea (Russia)

Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin

February 1945 – Germany not yet defeated
Potsdam

Held in Germany

Attlee, Truman, Stalin

July 1945 – Germany had surrendered but Japan was not yet defeated
Germany
Yalta

Agreed in principle to divide Germany into four zones to be occupied by Britain, France, USA and USSR
Potsdam

Set up the four ‘zones of occupation’ – but there was open disagreement about the boundaries
Reparations
Yalta

Set up a commission to look into reparations
Potsdam

Russia was allowed to take reparations from the Soviet Zone, plus 10% of industrial capacity unnecessary
for the German peacetime economy of the western zones

America and Britain thought this was too much
Eastern Europe
Yalta

‘Declaration of Liberated Europe’ (to set up democracies in East Europe)

Set up Polish Government of National Unity (Stalin arrested the non-communists)
Potsdam

Britain and USA were worried about Soviet power but still…

Recognized the Polish government
Relations
Yalta

Agreements on principles

Some tension – Churchill wrote to Roosevelt that ‘Russia was a danger to the free world’
Potsdam

Open disagreement about details

Truman was ‘tired of babying the Soviets’ and determined to ‘get tough’ with the Russians
International Relations
Yalta

Russia was invited to join the United Nations
Potsdam

America was horrified that Russia might join the war against Japan

Truman did not tell Stalin that he had the atomic bomb
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Salami Tactics
How did Communism take over Eastern Europe after 1945? like slicing up salami
Bulgaria

1945 – a left-wing coalition (‘The Fatherland Front’) was elected

1946 – the Communists executed 15,000 opponents

Tsar Simeon was driven into exile

1947 – the Communists won the election and adopted a Soviet-style government led by Dimitrov
(trained in the USSR)
Poland




1945 – a coalition ‘Government of National Unity’ took power
1945 – Stalin arrested the non-Communist leaders
1945-47 – thousands of non-Communists were imprisoned
1947 – the Communist leader, Bierut (trained in the USSR) won an election and became head of
state
Hungary

1945 – a coalition government took power – few Communists were elected

Rakosi – (the Communists’ leader) got opposition parties banned

Rakosi – got control of the police and set up the AVO

Thousands of non-Communists were arrested

By 1947 Rakosi had power (he is credited with the term salami tactics)
Romania

1945 – King Michael came back from exile and a left-wing coalition (‘the Plowman’s Front’)
was elected

1946 – there was a campaign of violence against the non-Communist parties

The Communists won the 1946 elections and forced King Michael to abdicate
Czechoslovakia

1945 – a coalition government

the Communists (led by Gottwald) took over the radio, police and army

1947 – secret police arrested non-Communists

1948 – Gottwald organized demonstrations demanding Communism

Masaryk ‘fell’ from a window and Gottwald took over
East Germany

East Germany became the Russian zone completely under Russian control

The Social Democrats merged with the Communist Party to form the Social Unity Party, which
won the 1946 elections

1949 – the Russians named their zone the ‘German Democratic Republic’
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan
What were the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan?
Greece



After WWI Greece appeared to be ‘under threat’ from Communism
Britain was unable to support Greece (as it had done in the past)
In 1947 Greece was under attack from Communist rebels and asked the USA for help
Communism

Truman was concerned about the spread of Communism and was determined to take action

He offered arms, supplies and money to Greece

Communism in Greece was defeated by 1949 following a civil war
Doctrine

Truman was determined that the USA would not live in isolation

The Truman Doctrine aimed to contain Communism, but not push it back – Containment

Offered assistance to ‘all free peoples’ resisting ‘attempted subjugation’
Marshall Plan

Truman saw war ravaged Europe as a ‘breeding ground’ for Communism

He felt it was vital to encourage countries to become prosperous again – to recover from the war

US Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed Marshall Aid

Total aid from 1948 – 1951 was close to $13 billion US
Just Being Helpful?

Helping European countries to recover also meant creating a market for US exports

Also (although not publicly admitted) it was a clear aim to prevent the spread of Communism

Stalin saw this as America trying to buy support

Countries receiving aid included UK, France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium,
Luxembourg, Austria, Denmark, Norway, Greece, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ireland, Iceland
Success?

1948 – 1952 saw period of growth in European history

Agricultural production surpassed pre-war levels

Forged North Atlantic alliances

Political stability was achieved in the countries receiving aid

Rationing was ended, poverty and starvation disappeared
Tension

Aid was vital for European economic recovery

However, Stalin refused Marshall Aid and banned Eastern European countries under the USSR’s
control from accepting it

This created tension on both sides
Many historians differ on just how much credit should be given to Marshall Plan for Europe’s recovery.
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Berlin Blockade 1948
Why did the Blockade happen and what were the Consequences?
Yalta Background

Had been agreed to split Germany into four zones between USSR, France, Britain and USA.
Berlin was similarly divided

In 1948 USA, Britain and France merged their zones into West Germany and West Berlin

USA poured large sums of money into West Berlin
Stalin’s Concerns

Stalin was convinced this was a capitalist plot to lure East Germans and East Berliners

He was angry that he wasn’t consulted about decisions – such as the new Deutschmark

Stalin may have thought the US and its allies were planning to reunite Germany
Stalin’s Reaction

June 24, 1948 Stalin ordered all road, rail and canal routes between West Germany and West
Berlin to be closed

He hoped to force the US and her allies into submission

US reacted strongly, claiming this was Stalin’s first step in a take-over of Western Europe
Allied Reaction

The Allies didn’t want to force their way into Berlin for fear of sparking a war, so they began to
fly supplies in

Flights began on June 26, reaching a peak of one every 3 minutes by September 1948
Consequences for USSR

Stalin couldn’t just shoot the planes down

He had to eventually back down – on May 12, 1949 he ended the blockade – it was a major
embarrassment

Stalin realized the USSR needed the atom bomb to stand up to the US. Atomic testing was
increased
Consequences for USA

Seen as ‘proof’ that the USSR had plans to take over Europe

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) formed in April 1949 as a result

Stalin saw this as a deliberate threat

In 1955 when West Germany joined NATO, the USSR-led ‘Warsaw Pact’ was formed
Berliners watching a C-54 land at Templehof Airport, 1948
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Khrushchev’s Soviet Union 1953-1964
What happened to the Soviet Union under Khrushchev?
De-Stalinization

Feb 1956 – Secret Speech (report to govt criticizing Stalin’s purges and cult of personality)

Attacked image and reputation of Stalin

More freedom for writers and artists

Size and power of secret police reduced

Political prisoners released
Agricultural Policies

Aim was to produce more food

Virgin Land Scheme – take fallow land and cultivate it using govt resources

Introduce maize

Small collective farms became independent

Bigger, more efficient Collective Farms were created
Agricultural Problems

Khrushchev thought he was an expert, but was not

Virgin Land Scheme failed

Maize was unsuitable (climate, soil, etc)

New collective farms did not work well
Industrial Policies

Sovnarkhozy – Regional Economic Councils

Controls on workers relaxed

Decisions to be taken at a more regional level

Ordered more luxury goods

Developed Space program

“What sort of Communism is it that cannot produce a sausage?”
Industrial Problems

Sovnarkhozy didn’t work

Managers and workers were not used to the freedom

Led to more bureaucracy

Consumer goods sacrificed for space program

1961 slogan “Turn Khrushchev into sausage meat”

“Whilst Gagarin orbited the earth, we counted on abacuses” – housewife, 1990
Why did he Resign?

Prices rose by 30%

Agricultural policies had failed

Industrial policies had failed

Failed foreign policies – Cuba

Embarrassment – UN shoe stamping incident during a speech

Criticism of Stalin had gone too far for many

Forced to resign in 1964
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Khrushchev 1953 - 1964
What effect did Khrushchev have on the Cold War?
More Peaceful?

Khrushchev said that he wanted ‘peaceful co-existence’
BUT

By ‘peaceful co-existence’ he really meant ‘peaceful competition’
Friendlier?

Khrushchev had a sense of humor and was always laughing and smiling
BUT

He was NOT gentle and easy-going – Stalin had used him to run the terror purges after WWII
Gentler?

In 1956, Khrushchev said that Stalin was a murderer, and he began to ‘destalinize’ Russia.
Political prisoners were set free and Beria (responsible for Stalin’s Great Purge) was executed
BUT

‘Destalinization’ did not mean a change back to capitalism, or freedom from Russia
Summits?

Khrushchev often met western leaders at ‘summit’ meetings
BUT

Khrushchev loved to argue. This often caused tension between leaders
Iron Curtain?

In 1955 Khrushchev told Tito of Yugoslavia ‘there are different roads to communism’. Western
leaders thought this meant an end to the Iron curtain
BUT

When communist countries went to far in their reforms, Khrushchev sent in the army (eg
Hungary 1956)
Thaw?
At first, the western powers hoped that this would be the start of a ‘thaw’ in the Cold War
BUT

Khrushchev gave countries like Burma and Afghanistan economic aid if they supported Russia

Castro and Khrushchev at the United Nations in 1960
IB Exam Review
Cold War
The Hungarian Uprising
What happened in Hungary in 1956?
Background

In 1945, USSR installed puppet government in Hungary

Designed to remove opposition and enforce loyalty

Soviet propaganda everywhere and protest groups emerged wanting democracy
Khrushchev

In February 1956, Khrushchev criticized parts of Stalin’s rule, suggesting that Soviet policy
might be changing

Those who heard about the speech thought this might mean countries like Hungary would be
allowed to have self-determination
Overthrow

In October 1956 the Communist dictatorship was overthrown

Opposition groups unite and support ex-Prime Minister Imre Nagy
Red Army

November 4, 1956 – Khrushchev orders Red Army to take control

Tanks and soldiers enter Budapest

Bitter street fighting, but Communist leader Rakosi was restored
Pleas for Help

Opposition group leaders were all captured and executed

Desperate pleas over the radio for US assistance – but there was on US intervention

Imre Nagy was imprisoned and then executed
Consequences

Around 30,000 Hungarians died including 20 opposition group leaders and Imre Nagy

Showed Soviet policy – countries in her sphere of influence would stay in her sphere of influence

USA showed no desire to get involved (this must have made USSR happy)
A ruined statue of Stalin in Budapest
Russian tanks in Budapest
IB Exam Review
Cold War
The Berlin Wall 1961
How Significant was the Berlin Wall and Why was it Built?
Background

At Yalta, Berlin had been divided into four zones (just as Germany had been)

In 1948-49, the Berlin Blockade saw Stalin attempt to ‘starve’ West Berlin into submission

Stalin was forced to back down following the Berlin Airlift
Differences

Apart from the Berlin Blockade, those living in Berlin could travel freely – live in the East and
work in the West and vice versa

Khrushchev proclaimed that Berlin was being used by the West as a base for spying and
sabotage
Problems

In reality, he wanted to prevent all the highly skilled and educated from working in West Berlin

East Berlin was still suffering badly, whereas West Berlin was recovering well

Between 1945-60 it is thought 3 million people crossed from East to West Berlin
August 13, 1961

Overnight a well guarded fence was constructed dividing the city in two

People were trapped in either East or West Berlin

The fence was guarded by Red Army machine gun posts
Concrete Wall

By August 17th, the barbed wire fence was replaced with a concrete wall, split only by well
guarded checkpoints

From 1961 to 1989 nearly 90 people died trying to cross

The wall became a symbol of the division between Communism and Capitalism
Consequences

In some ways it was a propaganda victory for the ‘West’ – they claimed Communist countries
had to build a wall to imprison people

However, there was very little the West could do to stop it – and the wall did serve its purpose
East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Change in Relations from 1945-1962
How did the Superpower Relations Change from 1945 - 1962?
Allies to Enemies?

USSR and USA were allies united against Nazi Germany

Once WWII ended, any friendship thawed. Some suggest wartime alliance was just a necessity
for both sides

By 1962, the two allies were on the brink of nuclear war
Alliances

Following the Berlin Blockade (1948-49) tensions rose

Saw creation of two alliances – North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Warsaw Pact
Arms Race

Race between the superpowers to try and build more weapons than each other

Development of a huge range of ever-increasing powerful weapons and equipment for war

Vast sums of money were spent by both sides
Mutual Co-Existence

Stalin died in 1953 and relations seemed to improve

The Hungarian Crisis (1956) shoed the USA wouldn’t interfere directly in USSR territory

Concept of ‘mutual co-existence’ – both accepted each other, as long as they didn’t interfere
Crises





Series of crises rapidly changed the situation
U2 incident (1960)
Berlin Wall (1961)
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
The increase in tension brought the world to the brink of war
After 1962

Both sides realized how dangerous the situation had become

After 1962 there was a gradual thawing of relations in a process that became known as Détente

There were still serious issues, but both sides took steps to prevent similar situations again
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Cuban Missile Crisis 1962
What made the Cuban Missile Crisis the most Serious Incident of the Cold War?
Background

In 1959 Fidel Castro’s rebels overthrew corrupt pro-US government in Cuba

Castro tried to make a trade agreement with the USA

USA refused as they saw Castro as a Communist

Thus Castro turned to the USSR, who readily made a deal
Nuclear Site Spotted

In return for buying Cuban goods, the USSR got permission to build a nuclear missile site in
Cuba

On October 14, 1962 a US U2 spy plane spotted the nuclear site being built
ExComm Set Up

US President Kennedy set up ‘ExComm’ a committee to decide what to do

On October 22, Kennedy ordered the US navy to blockade Cuba

He stated that any Soviet vessel that tried to break the blockade would be destroyed
On the Brink of War

On October 23, the United Nations backed the US and ordered any missiles to be removed

Soviet ships were spotted heading towards Cuba

The world was on the brink of all out nuclear war
Compromise

On October 27, Khrushchev secretly offered to pull out of Cuba if the USA pulled out of Turkey

Kennedy agreed and a day later Khrushchev ordered Soviet ships to turn around
Consequences

Major propaganda victory for USA – they looked to have ‘won’

As the compromise was a secret, Khrushchev appeared to have backed down

Both sides began seeking ways of improving relations (a hotline was set up providing immediate
contact)
Kennedy and McNamara in an ExComm meeting
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Detente
1963ish-1979ish: What was achieved during the era of Detente?
Reasons for Détente

Both sides had reasons to improve relations

US fighting in Vietnam – needed to slow arms race to reduce burden on economy

USSR concerned about Communist China

Both sides wanted to reduce economic expenditure
Better Relations

1963 – Hotline set up; nuclear test ban Treaty banned tests above ground

1968 – Non-proliferation treaty

1969 – Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began – reducing mid-range nuclear weapons (SALT)
Cooperation

1972 – President Nixon visits Moscow and SALT 1 Treaty signed

1972 – Agreements between East and West Germany signed

1975 – Space – US astronauts and Soviet Cosmonauts docked together in space.
Helsinki Accords

August 1975

Helsinki Agreement signed by 35 countries (including USSR and USA)

Declaration of Human Rights

Current borders of Europe accepted

Demonstration of commitment to improve relations
SALT 2?

1979 – SALT 2 treaty proposed to cover long-range nuclear missiles.

Never ratified by US Congress due to Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

USSR claimed they had been asked to ‘restore order’. US saw it as an invasion and supported
Afghan rebels

Joe Biden was in on the discussions with Gromyko
Conclusions

Mistrust and suspicion continued during Détente, but this was a period that generally saw
cooperation and agreement

Both sides had much to gain from increased cooperation – such as savings from a slower arms
race and also trade benefits
Ford and Brezhnev signing SALT documents in 1974
IB Exam Review
Cold War
Gorbachev’s Soviet Union
What happened to the Soviet Union under Gorbachev?
Political Problems

Instability – Soviet Union had four leaders in four years

Brezhnev’s era was one of repression

Corruption

Stalin’s generation was being replaced by more liberal men

Gorbachev didn’t know how serious these problems were
Economic Problems

Soviet Union was virtually bankrupt

Industry was backward and old fashioned, inefficient

Arms Race – military commitments in Eastern Europe and nuclear arsenal were very expensive

Thriving black market

Chernobyl 1985 – highlighted all these problems
Social Problems

1980 Soviet Union had highest alcoholic rate in world – 10% workers drunk at any time

Low standard of living

Luxury goods were scarce and unaffordable
Gorbachev’s Aims

End the Cold War

Pull Red Army out of Afghanistan

End Soviet Union’s commitment to Eastern Europe

All this was to save communism, not destroy it

Policies were:
Glasnost – openness, freedom of information
Perestroika – economic restructuring
Why did Gorbachev Fail?

Gorbachev had no real detailed plan, only goals

Too little, too late

Help from the G7 never came

By late 1980s Red Army was no longer being paid

Gorbachev was not prepared to use force to keep the Soviet Union together
Why did Gorbachev Resign?

People wanted more reforms

Allowing Eastern Europe to break away encouraged the break up of the Soviet Union

Gorbachev refused to use force against ethnic uprisings

Gorbachev became isolated politically

Coup of August 1991 – Yeltsin

By Dec 1991, Gorbachev was president of nothing
IB Exam Review
Cold War
End of the Cold War
How and Why Did The Cold War End in 1989? (Is there a new cold war?)
Afghanistan

USSR faced huge pressure over invasion

They feared Islamic fundamentalists (Mujahedin) would take over Afghanistan

What was meant to be a brief invasion turned into their equivalent of Vietnam

Huge financial burden – verge of bankruptcy
gee, see any current correlations?
Gorbachev and Reagan

New USSR leader Gorbachev realized drastic changes were needed

Supporting other Communist countries, competing in the arms race and huge military costs were
too much for Russian economy to ‘bear’ – get it?

US spent huge amounts on defense in an effort to finally ‘win’ the arms race
Friendship

President Reagan came to power with strong anti-Communist stance (e.g. massive defense
spending plans)

Yet the two opposing leaders got along well together – suggested possibilities of closer relations
Meetings

Gorbachev and Reagan met in Geneva (1985) and Reykjavik (1986)

INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Treaty) signed in 1987 – actual destruction of a range of
nuclear weapons
Change

1989 saw the break-up of the Soviet’s ‘Sphere of Influence’ over Eastern Europe

Poland 1989 – protests led to free elections

Gorbachev refused to send in Red Army to squash opposition

This sent a signal to other Eastern European countries
End of the Cold War

Borders began to open and Communist governments resigned

In 1989 President Bush and Gorbachev met off Malta and declared the Cold War over

In November 1989 the Berlin Wall was torn down

Soviet Union collapsed, Gorbachev resigned on Dec 25, 1991
Cold War initiatives / dates to know…
Strategic Defense Initiative (1983)
MAD (Mutually Assured Destruction)
Containment 1947-1953
Escalation and Crisis 1953-1962
Détente 1963-1979