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Islam Chapter Objectives: After learning this material you will be able to: 1. Describe the life and teaching of Muhammad. 2. Understand the importance of the Qur’an to Muslims. 3. Discuss the faith and practice of the Five Pillars in the life and practice of Muslims. 4. Describe the five daily prayers Muslims observe. 5. Understand the “Golden Age” of Islam and its contributions to literature, philosophy, science, and theology. 6. Explain the difference between Sunni and Shi’a Islam. 7. Discuss Islamic mysticism known as Sufism and the role it has played in Muslim spirituality. 8. Understand the position of Islam in the modern world, its varied responses to changes, especially the growth of Islamic fundamentalism. 9. Describe the role of women in Islam, the importance of how one interprets the Qur’an, and how women are managing the changes in contemporary Islam. Preface Islam deserves a preface (as did Christianity) to help all of you approach Islam in a way that will facilitate learning. It is all too easy to apply a layer of preconceived notions unconsciously to Islam. Christianity deserved a preface because so many students in the class identify with Christianity that it is sometimes difficult for them to study it in a philosophy class without feeling defensive. Only a few students each quarter are Muslims, yet we still need a preface, but for the opposite reason, namely, so little is known about Islam that our ignorance gets in the way of learning. Finally, I learned that saying a few words at the beginning of this study helps students approach this subject with an open mind. There may be things about Islam that you choose to disagree with, but as always in this course, I want you to make the effort to find out what Islam actually teaches before you disagree. More often than not I find that people disagree with a version of Islam that is not correct. This information is usually picked up from hearsay and the popular media. Why does the media 1 report false information? This is a complicated question and something I cannot fully go into in this course, but there is one important thing to remember about the media. It is a business out to make a profit. It is not that the media tries to lie, but they do try to find what will sell. That is why the media is full of bad news. Bad news sells, good news does not sell; so there is very little good news reported. Then, to make their report “true,” all they need to do is back it up with support. That is not as difficult as it seems. In the case of Islam you just find a “Muslim” willing to say that what they are claiming is based on the religion and it is “backed up.” But we all know people who claim to be followers of a religious faith. Their claim is just that, a claim. It does not mean what they say is true or representative of their faith. To bring it closer to home, some of you may remember David Koresh and the Branch Davidians. This was a group who had a compound in Texas that was raided by the FBI in 1993 and eventually burned down to the ground in a controversial assault where many people were killed. David Koresh claimed to be the Messiah and holder of the true understanding of Christianity. My question is does Koresh’s claim make it true? It is true that he claimed this and it is true that he had followers who would back up his claims, but the vast majority of Christians would claim that David Koresh does not in fact speak for Christianity. In fact, most Christians would claim that he was an insane fanatic and therefore could not represent authentic Christianity. Instead they would point to someone like Mother Teresa or Martin Luther King and say “there is an authentic representative of the teaching of Christ.” Koresh’s movement was not referred to as “Christian Terrorism.” He was not considered a “Christian terrorist.” If he is not referred to as a Christian terrorist then why are terrorists in the Middle East referred to as “Islamic terrorists?” Do these suicide bombers and terrorists represent the teachings of Islam? Are they putting into practice the teachings of the Qur’an? These are the type of questions all students of philosophy need to ask themselves. There are many Islamic teachers who claim that these terrorists are ruining Islam and do not speak for the vast majority of Muslim people. Are they right? Are they the true representatives of Islam? This is for you to decide after you sort through the evidence. In the meantime, I ask that you try to learn with as open a mind as possible and then disagree if you want, but at least you will be disagreeing with the teachings of Islam and not simply with what the media tells us that Muslims believe. 2 On a separate note, you will notice that I frequently used two names, Islam and Muslim. Islam is the name of the religion and Muslims are adherents to the religion of Islam. You can talk about a Muslim or Islamic civilization interchangeably and be grammatically correct but you cannot say the Islam people. That would not be correct grammar. You would need to say the Muslim people or the Islamic people. Another reminder: Islam began in the Middle East (as did Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity) and its sacred language, the language of the Qur’an is Arabic, but nevertheless most Muslims are not Arabian! This means the religion has spread around the world and the majority of Muslims do not live in the Middle East. This means one of the challenges you have to face is figuring out where Islam stops and Arab culture begins. Are you agreeing or disagreeing with Islam or Arabians? For example, most feminists object to the way Islamic women are treated. But are they talking about a modern American Muslim woman? No! They are talking about Arabian women. Is there a difference? Yes! When I taught this class in person I would have a modern, white American Muslim woman visit class to give a guest lecture just to surprise people! Needless to say they were “surprised” that their stereotype of the Arab woman covered in black was not true. This does not mean that Islam does not have responsibilities for Arab culture and customs. It does mean that things, as usual, are more complex than we tend to think. Finally, I urge you all to consider attending a mosque for your final project. I have had students tell me they did not go because they were afraid about how they would be welcomed. But this says much more about media propaganda then it does about reality. All of the students (every one!) who have gone have been glad they went and talked about how warmly they were welcomed and how glad Muslims were to show them their faith in its best light rather than in the glare of media lights. Which is not to say they came away ready to convert, but they at least came away with a new experience under their belt that led them to greater understanding rather than greater fear. What more can you ask of an educational experience? Introduction Islam is an important religion to know about for many reasons. One of those reasons is that it is the world’s second largest as well as the fastest growing 3 religion. “Over 1 billion of the world’s population adhere to the faith of Islam, the youngest of the world’s great religions” (Robert S. Ellwood and Barbara A. McGraw, Many Peoples, Many Faiths: Women and Men in the World Religions, Seventh Edition, [Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002], p. 377. Hereafter referred to in the lectures as MPMF.) Many Muslims are moving to the United States and, as a result, those of us who do not know Muslims yet will soon have that opportunity. Obviously politics is full of news of the Middle East and Islam. Knowing something about Muslim people and the teachings of the Qur’an is an important task for all modern educated people. Islam is a monotheistic faith that believes surrendering to the will of God is the greatest human task. “The very heart of Islam is submission to the total will of Allah, or God. (Allah is not the name of a god, but simply means “The God” – the one and only God.) God’s will for humanity, Muslims believe, was most fully given in the Qur’an, the book revealed through the prophet Muhammad. The word Islam means “submission,” and the name tells us that the central idea of this faith is simply full and complete submission to the will of God. An adherent of the faith is called a Muslim, one who has made the submission” (MPMF, pp. 377-378.) It is important to note right away that Islam is about God and his teaching, not Muhammad the Prophet of God. Muhammad is not worshipped or considered divine as Jesus is in Christianity. Muhammad is simply considered a channel of God’s message to humans. These messages were revealed to Muhammad by an angel. They were revealed over many years as an oral tradition for as long as Muhammad lived and led his people. These teachings and revelations “were recorded by scribes after the Prophet’s death [and then] were compiled into the Qur’an, the book believed by Muslims to be the last and greatest Divine revelation to humanity, just as Muhammad is seen as the last and greatest in a line of prophets sent to restore the simple, primal religion of justice and pure monotheism” (MPMF, p. 430.) In this sense, Islam honors other monotheistic faiths, but considers that they were corrupted over time. For example, the teaching about the Trinity in Christianity is considered a corruption of pure monotheism. As we will see, Islam holds an honored place for Jesus, but does not consider him divine. There are a few religious duties that all Muslims agree to abide by as being standard. “The practice of Islam centers on what are commonly called its 4 Five Pillars: reciting the creed that states that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet; praying five times daily; giving alms; keeping a fast during the month of Ramadan; and once in one’s life, if possible, making the pilgrimage to Mecca” (MPMF, p. 430.) Reciting the creed is what makes one officially a Muslim. There is not a formal baptism ceremony as in Christianity. By agreeing to submit one’s will to God, called Allah by Muhammad, one becomes a Muslim. Praying five times a day is a way of consecrating all of our days to Allah. The prayers are not lengthy. It is not that you are supposed to spend hours in prayer and neglect your other duties, but it is a way to try and remember what is most important in one’s life. Giving alms is a way of making sure that all people have their basic needs met. Spiritually, it is a way of affirming the importance of the community. We are not separate and fully independent. People need each other and as we will see, Islam places a great deal of emphasis on community. The fast during the month of Ramadan is a fairly difficult feat. One does not go without food or drink for all of that time, but food and drink (and sex and smoking for example) is very restricted so that one goes many hours without sustenance. The idea is to practice self-discipline and place the good things of life in their proper perspective and it is also a way of practicing solidarity with those who have less. Pilgrimage is the expectation that you will try to go to Mecca at least once in your life. Exceptions are allowed if, for example, you are too poor or disabled. But in general you try to make this trip at least once. This pilgrimage is important for a number of reasons we will look at, but it is also an event that creates and supports community, especially now that Islam attracts people to Mecca from all over the world. Islam arose at a time when Christianity was entering a period known as the “Dark Ages.” One reason this age was considered dark was because the Roman Empire had fallen apart and society was not united and many of the benefits of civilization such as education were lost for a long time and kept alive only in the monasteries. Islam quickly became not only a religion but also an empire. This happened much faster than it did in Christianity. Muslims ruled the Middle East, North Africa, parts of Europe (Spain, Hungary), and their empire went all the way to India as well. During this time leaders known as Caliphs ruled Islamic civilization. “During the Golden Age of the Caliphate, science, philosophy, and theology were extensively cultivated. Learned men not only preserved the best of classical 5 thought but made important advances, which were finally transmitted to Europe” (MPMF, pp. 430-431.) It was contacts with Muslims, especially in Spain, that helped jump start European and Christian civilization once again. The knowledge of Aristotle, for example, had been lost in Europe until the Muslims brought their translations to Spain. As we saw with Thomas Aquinas, the philosophy of Aristotle would lead to scholasticism and a revival of Catholic philosophy and understanding for many hundreds of years. Shortly after the death of Muhammad there was confusion and argument about who was to succeed Muhammad as leader of Islam. This caused the first major division in Islam, although the division is much more political than theological. “Islam is divided into two main groups. Sunni Islam emphasizes the traditional path of Islamic life as interpreted by the consensus of scholars and the community. Shi’a Islam, while following the traditional path, also puts its faith in the authority of Imams who are Muhammad’s hereditary successors” (MPMF, p. 431.) For the most part, both types of Muslims believe and practice in the same way. For example, they share the same Five Pillars and join together on pilgrimage to Mecca. I have been told that the most popular and best selling poet in America today is the Sufi poet (who lived long ago) known as Rumi. His religious love poetry that sees God as the “Friend” and “Beloved” speaks to the perennial mystic impulse in human aspiration. “Islamic mysticism, called Sufism in the West, focuses on the presence of the Divine oneness everywhere and offers paths to the attainment of union with God” (MPMF, p. 431.) Many Western people see Sufism in such a bright light that sometimes they are surprised when they learn that Sufis are Muslims. Sufis sometimes even shock Muslims, and as with most mystical movements, have sometimes been a source of controversy and contention within the Muslim world. After its Golden Age, Islam went into a certain decline and entered its own “dark age.” During the last hundred years, as Muslims have thrown off the colonization of Western countries, so have they renewed and restored their religious beliefs. The last hundred years has seen all sorts of movements that have sought to understand Islam in new ways as well as recover what had been lost and forgotten. “This resurgent Islam is a major force in the world today” (MPMF, p. 431.) Part of the conflicts in the modern Muslim world stem from arguments about what is the best way to restore the faith of the Islamic people. As we have seen in the other religions, the arguments fall all 6 across the board from the conservative and traditional folks at one end to the liberal and progressive folks at the other end of the spectrum. Some of these arguments have to do with the role of women in Islam. As we will see there is currently no consensus on how women should fit into Islam and what their place is to be. Conservatives want to restore older and more culturally bound patriarchal beliefs about women. Others want to look again at the Qur’an and the early teachings of Islam which, (we will see), can be seen in a liberalizing light and seek to renew the understanding of femininity in the light of modern studies. As a result, “it is very difficult to make generalizations about women in Islam as its practices differ in the many places it can be found around the world” (MPMF, p. 431.) Modern American Muslim women for example, see the “requirement” of veiling women in a very different light. Instead of completely hiding women they see it as a simple request to dress modestly, which, by the way, does not exclude good tastes and being fashionable. The veiling of women may have more to do with patriarchal culture than it does with the teaching of the Qur’an. “Yet, just as we have seen in many other religions, attitudes and customs form the social context in which Islam has found itself have been assimilated into Islamic culture and religious justifications have been found for them” (MPMF, p. 431.) Religions do not develop in a vacuum. A religion must decide what to do with a society’s culture and values when they are encountered. Much later it is sometimes difficult to imagine that accepted customs are not part of the original religion. Islam is now a worldwide religion. But because it started in the deserts of Arabia there is a certain Arabian Nights quality to many people’s perspective on this unique religion. “Islam is a community that does indeed cut across many cultures. Non-Muslims often envision Islam as the faith of romantic (and now tremendously oil-wealthy) Arab sheiks and caravaneers, but only a minority of Muslims are Arab, and only a tiny minority are wandering desert dwellers. The largest single Muslim nation is tropical Indonesia, where the faith of Muhammad is superimposed on an East Asian culture” (MPMF, p. 377.) This is one of those facts that are important to keep in mind when Muslim often means “Arab” to so many people. Nevertheless, the mosque, the Muslim place of prayer and worship, has a distinct Arab feel to it. Most of us would recognize a mosque because it has 7 such distinct characteristics. “Few would mistake a mosque for a church, synagogue, or Hindu temple. The mosque, a place of prayer to the infinite Lord, has no picture, image, altar, flowers, or candles – only a vast, clean, cool, austerely beautiful empty space” (MPMF, p. 377.) The floor surface will often be covered in Persian rugs. There are no pews. Muslims do not believe that one should make images of Allah and so there are no pictures. Islam is not meant to be a religion separate from culture and society. Islam does not believe in the separation of church and state (which is one source of conflict between Islam and the modern Western world.) A Muslim’s life is to be submitted entirely to God and this is best done in a culture that supports this submission. In a traditional Islamic culture, everyone stops to worship. This makes it easier to pray at the five times a day that are required. In some countries the call to prayer is quite public. “On the streets of a Muslim country, the pervasive influence of the religion is felt, too. Five times a day – sunrise, noon, afternoon, just after sunset, at dark – a crier, called the muezzin (nowadays often replaced by a recording and a loudspeaker system), summons the faithful to prayer from the minaret, the tower attached to every mosque. His plaintive cry replaces the bells of Christendom. Then believers prostrate themselves in prayer in shops and homes, wherever they are, as well as in mosques” (MPMF, p. 377.) Muslims in America find ways to make this practice possible by praying during breaks at work and school, but it is much simpler to live in a society where everyone stops for the few minutes necessary for prayer. One takes time in prayer to renew the effort to submit one’s life to the will of Allah, which means recognizing God’s greatness in all of one’s affairs and in the community’s affairs as well. One does this joyfully because one wants to please Allah who has given life and all its blessings. “That is the central motif of Islam – the greatness of God alone. Because Allah is great and sovereign, all the world and all the affairs of humankind belong only to him. For this reason, Islam does not lavishly embellish the religious sphere with rites and symbols and priesthood; if Allah is truly great, Islam says, he can be worshipped anywhere by anyone in the simple forms prescribed by the Qur’an and tradition. If God is truly sovereign, what he has commanded for all of society – law, ethics, government – is just as important as the religious commandments and inseparable from them. For this reason, Islam is experienced as a total and indivisible way of life (MPMF, p. 379.) In many ways this gets back to the ideas found in the world’s earliest tribal 8 religions that all of life is sacred and that everything, therefore, is essentially sacred. Because everything is sacred and all of life is to be brought into harmony with this sacredness, secular government is seen as problematic. “It is deeply consistent with the basic premise of the faith – the absolute sovereignty of God over all situations and over every atom of the universe – that whenever feasible Muslims not only establish Muslim worship but create Muslim societies under Muslim rulers based on Qur’anic law. Modern conditions have often mandated reinterpretations of this ideal. But the Qur’an remains the fountainhead of the true law and true culture and a summons to submission in every area of life, the “secular” – political, economic, and family life – as well as such conventionally religious matters, as how one says prayers” (MPMF, p. 379.) This is a real challenge to some Muslims who have seen many of the benefits of the modern Western world and its ideas regarding freedom of conscience and democracy. One of the modern challenges to Islam is to figure out a way to submit fully to God in a secular culture. Christianity had the same problem and has come to an uneasy truce in the modern Western world. Many Christians feel that Christianity has compromised itself too much to fit in with modern values and customs. Many Muslims feel the same way. Now that we have had an over view of Islam it is time to go back and take a closer look at these issues ands some others we have not touched on. Muhammad While it is true that Muhammad is not seen as divine and he is not worshipped, it is also true to say that without Mohammad there would be no Islam. “At the core of Islam lies the experience and faith of Muhammad (570-632) himself” (MPMF, p. 379.) Who was this man who lived in Mecca (located in modern Saudi Arabia) so long ago? Muhammad was born into a merchant family and became a camel driver concerned with trade and the caravans across the deserts. The people of Mecca were polytheistic and had many different gods and goddesses. Mecca was a city that had a central holy spot that was considered a place of peace where people had to put aside their differences. It was a place where there were many altars to the many divinities, but it was also a rich area because 9 this place of pilgrimage and worship brought much wealth to the city and its merchants. With this wealth came the usual corruption. Muhammad married Khadijah, a wealthy widow who was fifteen years older than himself, when he was twenty-five. They had a daughter named Fatima. Muhammad had a contemplative and solitary nature and he used to spend free time in a cave in the hills above Mecca praying and meditating. It is interesting to know that before anything happened to Muhammad he was seeking for the truth. “About the 611, Muhammad began to have a remarkable series of experiences in these solitary meditations in mountain caves. A mysterious darkness would come over him, and then the luminous figure of the archangel Gabriel would appear and recite words to him, which he could remember clearly. These words were first of all about the unity of God – that there is but one single God, ‘Lord of the worlds’ who abominates idolatry and will judge the earth on a day of fire and anxiety; and God calls upon all humanity to accept his sovereignty” (MPMF, p. 379.) Like so many prophets before him, Muhammad was not sure at first how to think about these words, but eventually he learned to trust and accept their authenticity. Muhammad spent about ten years trying to convince others of the truthfulness of these revelations about the oneness of Allah and the need to submit to Allah’s will and laws. But he had little success and in fact was seen as a threat to the people of Mecca who made their wealth from having a multitude of gods for people to come and worship. “In 622 he accepted an invitation from the city of Yathrib (now Medina) to teach there. His journey to Yathrib is called the Hijra. The date of the Hijra is the date from which the Muslim calendar starts; it marks the beginning of Muhammad’s public and organizational work on a large scale” (MPMF, p. 380.) So when you see a Muslim calendar you will notice that Islam is nearly 1400 years old. Muhammad lived another 10 years and during this time was able to lead a great movement that swept through Arabia and onto many other parts of the world. “Using Medina as a base, he brought all Arabia, including Mecca, under his control. He became at once the religious leader of the Arabs, their political ruler, and military commander. Right up to the end of his life, which occurred just after his return from his triumphal progress to Mecca in 632, the Divine revelations continued. Together they make up the text of the Qur’an, the Holy Scripture of Islam” (MPMF, p. 380.) Muhammad was not known to be a miracle worker as was Jesus for instance. But the Qur’an is considered his “miracle” and the validation for all that he taught. As a result, 10 it is important for us to take a closer look at it remembering that while Muhammad is not central to Islam, the Qur’an certainly is. The Qur’an Many people make the obvious analogy that the Qur’an is to Muslims what the Bible is to Jews and Christians. But this is only superficially true and not very accurate. It would be more accurate to say that the Qur’an is to Muslims what Jesus (not the Bible) is to Christians. “Unlike the JudeoChristian Bible, the Qur’an is not a collection of diverse material from over a thousand years. It was all delivered in a period of no more than twentytwo years to one man in the form of communications from God through his angel” (MPMF, p. 381.) The Qur’an is the manifestation of God’s concern and love for the Muslims in this world. Many Muslims have memorized the whole Qur’an, which is about the size of the Christian New Testament. Non-Arabic Muslims are strongly encouraged to learn Arabic so that they can study it in its original language. While it is possible to buy copies of the Qur’an in translation, this is not encouraged because the Arab language is filled with certain sounds and rhythms that are not translatable, and, therefore, other languages are inadequate for study. To be a serious Muslim one must try to assimilate this language. “To Muslims, the Qur’an is a miracle – the most convincing miracle of all as validation of their faith. It is said to be untranslatable, but to be in the original Arabic of exquisite, incomparable beauty of rhythm and expression. That one man, and he illiterate according to tradition, could be the merely human author of ‘the Glorious Qur’an, that inimitable symphony, the very sounds of which move men to tears and ecstasy,’ seems to Muslims incredible” (MPMF, p. 381.) I have heard the Qur’an’s Arabic compared to Shakespeare’s English. It is the standard by which all other Arabic is compared and found wanting. While Muslims respect those they call “people of the Book” (Jews and Christians) they believe that some of the Bible has been corrupted over time. That is why God sent to Muhammad his definitive revelation. Many people are surprised to find that the Bible and the Qur’an share similar stories and personages. But if there is a conflict between a version of a story found in both the Bible and the Qur’an then Muslims believe the Qur’an to be the accurate version. In fact it is important to note that Muslims trace their ancestry back to Abraham, as do the Jews and Christians. When Abraham’s wife Sarah could not have children he had a son named Ishmael by Hagar, 11 his wife’s maid. Arabs trace their ancestry back to Ishmael just as Jews trace their ancestry back to Abraham’s son Isaac by Sarah, who eventually conceived. Some people would trace the Jew’s and the Arab’s problems all the way back to these two half brothers! Another big difference between the Bible and the Qur’an is the way the words come across. While many Christians strongly believe that the Bible is the Word of God, they also recognize that the form of the Bible is partially stories about God in the third person voice. The Qur’an is written in the first person voice. Muslims believe it is God speaking directly. It is not about God’s words and thoughts. It is God speaking: a direct transmission. “The Holy Qur’an, they deeply believe, is the full and complete message of the infinite Divine Mind to humanity. Thus, it is not only studied, but also chanted, memorized, and recited on all sorts of occasions, venerated both as words and as a book. Even its way of speaking is Divine; it represents the personal style of Allah and so transmits something of God’s essence. Its very choice of rhythm, metaphor, and rhetorical method, in other words, reveals something of how God thinks and feels, just as do its contents” (MPMF, p. 381.) This is one of the reasons why the physical book containing the words should also be respected. To profane the Qur’an would be like a Catholic having to see Holy Communion misused and abused. Sometimes it is easy for Westerners not familiar with Islam to take offense at the Muslim’s differing versions of some Bible stories. But there is really no basis for a real argument because who can decide what is true except on the basis of his or her own faith? Each religion must try to be faithful to its own revelation. “If the accounts of some matters common to other faiths, such as the lives of Abraham or Jesus, seem twisted to those of such other faiths as they appear in the Qur’an, it must be remembered that Muslims are not, after all, Jews or Christians. They are under no obligation to regard the versions the latter consider authoritative to be fully authentic or complete. In fact, they consider the older Hebrew and Christian scriptures to be incomplete and corrupted by human intervention. On the other hand, they view the Qur’an as being complete because it was dictated directly by God, Muhammad being only, in effect, a scribe” (MPMF, p. 381.) Philosophically the question that interests me is why each major religion that believes in revelation, (that is in the idea that God reveals himself to humanity), also believe that they have the only legitimate revelation or as with Muslims, Muhammad is the last prophet? I always wonder why does someone have to be the last prophet? Why can’t prophecy and revelation go on and on? From 12 a religious point you can accept it on faith and I suppose that is what most believers do. For example, take the role of Jesus. Islam honors Jesus as a great prophet. But they do not believe Jesus was divine and they do not believe the Romans crucified him. They believe he slipped away just before capture and was taken to heaven by God until he returns at the end of the world. They also recognize many other people such as Moses as great prophets. “The role of Jesus in the Qur’an and in this series of prophets usually puzzles Christians. The Qur’an makes Jesus the greatest before Muhammad. He was called to preserve the Torah of the Jews and was a wise teacher of deep inward holiness. (This last quality has made him especially beloved of the esoteric mystics of Islam, [the Sufis].) Jesus has, to say the least, been far more highly regarded by Muslims than Muhammad has been by Christians” (MPMF, p. 383.) Muslims also honor Mary the mother of Jesus. Muslims do not believe in Jesus the way Christians do, but the fact that they honor him could be an important source of peace and dialogue among these two largest religions of the world. For those of you who have never opened a Qur’an it might be interesting to see how it reads in English. Remember that Muslims do not consider the English translation completely accurate, but nevertheless it can give you a “taste” for what the Qur’an is like. “In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful, Praise be to Allah, Lord of the Creation, The Compassionate, the Merciful, King of Judgment-day! You alone we worship, and to You alone we pray for help. Guide us to the straight path, The path of those whom You have favored, Not of those who have incurred Your wrath, Nor of those who have gone astray. (MPMF, pp. 381-382.) The immediate focus is on the compassion and mercy of Allah. This focus is renewed again and again. It will be important to remember this as we explore other ideas in Islam. Muslims believe that Islam is a correction to earlier monotheistic faiths partially because Islam simplifies things and brings worship of the one God back to its original purity. “Muslims believe that Islam is the ultimate religion, the complete religion. It is the religion of Abraham, the primal monotheism of the beginning, come back in finalized form. It is the ultimate form of religion because it is in fact the simplest and clearest. It is just the essence of religion, plain and perfect submission to the absolute God in all areas of life” (MPMF, p. 382.) It is true that much of religion can be reduced 13 to a believer seeking a personal relationship with the divine. To be in a right relationship with God is to follow the path he has laid out for humans. Muslims believe that this path to a relationship with Allah was laid out in the Qur’an. That path is summed up in the Five Pillars, which we will look at shortly. Can the message of Islam be summarized easily? Yes. “All the way through, then, the central message of Islam is oneness: the unity of the line of true prophets, the oneness of final prophet and book, the oneness of the People of God, the one submission to be made, and finally the supreme oneness of God” (MPMF, p. 384.) This focus on the oneness of God and of all life is what allows Islam to remain fundamentally simple. It is also the key to the Sufi’s understanding of reality. Their whole practice takes off with unity and oneness as the starting point. After all, if we are all one with God then the separation we experience must be an illusion. More on this when we discuss the Sufis below. Anyone familiar with psychology knows that great ideas like the oneness of God can lead people to believe that they have a special or unique relationship with God. This is the legitimate danger of prophets. That prophets may be real can be accepted on faith, but we also all know that there are serious problems with “false prophets” taking advantage of people. To avoid these problems of “spiritual materialism” Islam has instituted a series of rules that function much like the Jewish Torah. It becomes a way of life, a way of living out the unity that is spoken of in the Qur’an. “The tradition has tried hard to combat the human proclivity to mix piety and egotism through the shari’a, or law. Islam makes the Qur’an not only a book of God’s self-revelation but also a source of practical regulations covering such matters as marriage, almsgiving, relations with non-Muslims, and punishment of criminals” (MPMF, p. 384.) To study the Qur’an is to realize that all of life falls under religious law and is one of the reasons that many Muslims prefer to live in a Muslim ruled state. The Law has been added to over the years in much the way the Talmud was formed in Judaism. It allows people to find ways to apply God’s law in new situations and contexts. “Shari’a is the Qur’an as it is explicated and expanded by recognized jurists who depend in this process upon hadith, traditions based on extra-Qur’anic sayings and examples in the life of Muhammad” (MPMF, p. 384.) The Qur’an is the only scripture in Islam. But because Muhammad is so respected people pay a lot of attention to the way 14 he lived his life and the things he said. These traditions are known as the hadith and it provides the first commentary upon the Qur’an. If the Qur’an is the direct words of Allah, then hadith is the direct words and stories about Muhammad. One word we have all heard so much about is the word jihad. “Out of the community ideal of Islam comes the concept of jihad, or holy war, which is designed to defend Islam and allow its social practice, though not to force individual conversions, which is forbidden by doctrine, if not in actual practice in some places” (MPMF, p. 385.) Jihad is about defensive war, not offensive war. So when you hear of terrorists who claim to be fighting a jihad, a holy war, you need to ask yourself: is it true? Part of that question is to ask yourself if terrorists feel that they are defending themselves or not. For example, the attack on the World Trade Center comes across at first sight as an unprovoked attack upon the United States. And it is perfectly acceptable to see it as that as so many do. But some folks argue that while it appears to be offensive, it was in fact an act of defense against the Western world. Why? Because some Muslims feel that Western moral values, materialism, and disregard for traditional religious obligations is an attack on the Muslim way of life. Muslims may not have been defending themselves against American soldiers, but some felt they were defending themselves against American values, products, entertainment, etc. Again, this is too controversial to settle in a philosophy class. My point in bringing it up is to have students look at it with fresh eyes and ask themselves two questions. 1) Is jihad as currently expressed self-defense? 2) And if it is, what are Muslims defending themselves against? What are they afraid of? By asking these questions you will at the very least have a more intelligent discussion then falling back on how “stupid” it is. Claiming that jihad is only about war makes another mistake so common in the study of religions, which is to reduce very profound ideas to their most common and low level. “On the deepest level many Muslims interpret the jihad as allegorical of the spiritual struggle” (MPMF, p. 386.) It makes more spiritual sense to translate jihad as “holy struggle” rather than “holy war” because then it would include self-defense but also much more. Any act of self control and discipline can be seen as a “holy struggle.” Even on the simple and common level of our human body think about the difficulty some of us have to lose some weight, quit drinking, or quit smoking. Surely these 15 disciplines are jihads, holy struggles! To practice a discipline of prayer or to fight injustice - these too are jihads. It is important to not reduce great ideas to their lowest levels. That is one advantage to studying great ideas in a philosophy class. We get the chance to step back from our usual take on ideas and ask ourselves again what else they could mean. Now let’s take a closer look at the Islamic way of life. The Five Pillars of Islam As mentioned in the introduction, Islam has five general forms of religious practice called “The Five Pillars of Islam: the confession of faith, prayer five times a day, giving of alms to the poor, fasting in the month of Ramadan, and the hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca” (MPMF, p. 386.) It is now time to take a closer look at each of these five practices and try to gain an understanding of what they mean to Muslims and the role these pillars play in their daily lives. The confession of faith is much like a creed. It is a simple statement of faith. It is a way of stating “this I hold to be true.” “The first of the Five Pillars is to say, “There is no god but God (Allah), and Muhammad is the rasul (prophet or messenger) of God.” (MPMF, p. 386.) While short and succinct it nevertheless has the power of implying: “therefore what God and the prophet of God require I will believe and do.” It is also a community statement. Like the Pledge of Allegiance before public events in the United States, it is a statement declaring one’s union with, and commitment to, the community. Because Muslims believe that Muhammad was the last prophet, they also believe he was the greatest prophet. And while they are careful not to deify him or worship him, they do hold him and what he taught in the highest regard. “Muhammad is considered a paragon of virtue and fountain of wisdom, so that his sayings and acts, as transmitted by tradition, are basic precedents in Muslim law. But he is not a saint, seer, wonder-worker, divine incarnation, or even a profound mystic like the Buddha or a peerless philosopher like Confucius” (MPMF, p. 386.) So when they claim in their confession of faith that Muhammad is the prophet they are not claiming to follow Muhammad so much as they are claiming to follow what he revealed about God and God’s will for human life. 16 I will examine the second pillar regarding prayer separately when we discuss the mosque below. To give charity is fundamental to most of the religions of the world. “The third pillar is almsgiving. The fundamental obligation is to give a relatively small percentage of one’s wealth to the needy within the Muslim community on a regular basis; expanded, it covers good works and comradely attitudes in general, a helping hand and friendly smile for one’s neighbor. This pillar reaffirms the social and ethical dimensions of Islam” (MPMF, p. 386.) The idea behind charity is solidarity and a celebration of unity and oneness. Sometimes the charity has become a bit rigid in Muslim societies where it is collected as a tax. It becomes automatic and impersonal. The idea is to not simply give money, but to give of oneself. To be of service and to do so in a cheerful way is also part of this pillar. The idea is not for it to be a “sacrifice” but for it to be a joy to be able to give to others. It is fun to have money to do things we want, it is good to save and invest, and it is also good to be able to give. It is a part of life. It is also an expression of thankfulness. To have enough money to not only meet your own needs, but also to give is a privilege and expression of gratitude for all the good things in our lives. It is also a reminder that we may be the people in need at some point. The lesson for all of us is that the poverty and starvation in the world is completely unnecessary. It is true that the growing population of the world is a problem in many people’s eyes, but it is also true that currently there is enough to go around. The problem is in distribution. For example, the United States throws away tons of food and even pays farmers to not grow food so that prices will remain stable. The idea of charity is not that everyone has to have exactly the same amount. There will always be people who have less and others who have more. There is not even necessarily a moral issue with that. The moral issue is not with poor people but with people who are destitute. Poor is one thing; homeless and starving is another. Because of this it seems significant that Islam makes almsgiving central to the spiritual life of its believers. The next pillar also has to do with community solidarity and self-control. “The fourth pillar of Islam is the fast of Ramadan. Ramadan is a lunar month of about twenty-eight days in the Muslim calendar; during this period the faithful are neither to eat nor drink between daybreak and dark, but to give attention to prayer and religion” (MPMF, p. 387.) The fasting is an act 17 of community because everyone is doing it together. You are all hungry and thirsty together, but then after the sun sets in the evening families join together for a meal. The month ends with a big celebration and feast, much like the American Thanksgiving, that is also a time of gathering together and joy. I don’t know how many of you have ever tried to fast, but if you have you know that it can be quite difficult. As a result one can become kind of focused on the hunger or thirst to the exclusion of all else. This is natural, but it can also lead to missing the whole point if you don’t try to do something about it. Ultimately, religious fasting is to help people spiritually. It is not simply a physical thing. Muslims are not fasting to lose weight even though that might be a nice side benefit. Fasting is a reminder of humanity’s spiritual hunger for union with God. If Muslims let their physical hunger remind them of their spiritual hunger and let that reminder turn their hearts to prayer then they are beginning to gain the benefits intended. Fasting during Ramadan is not just about food. People are also asked to forego sex, smoking, and “evil thoughts” during the same period of sunrise to sunset. By evil thoughts are meant gossip, bitterness, unforgiving thoughts, etc. The idea is to turn the month of Ramadan into a month of spiritual renewal. Muslim bodies become leaner and more disciplined, but so should their thoughts and emotions. To focus only on food is another example of taking a great idea and reducing it to its lowest common denominator. Finally there is the trip every Muslim is asked to make at least once in their life to Mecca. “The fifth pillar is one known to almost everyone who has heard anything about Islam: the pilgrimage to Mecca called the hajj” (MPMF, p. 387.) On an external level, the trip to Mecca is focused around a visit to the Ka’ba, which is connected to Abraham. “Abraham under God’s instructions built the cubical shrine at Mecca – the Ka’ba – with the help of Ishmael” (MPMF, p. 388.) It is believed to be the first structure dedicated to the Oneness of God, or in other words, monotheism. It is also a great community act as most pilgrims go at a time when more than a million fellow pilgrims join them. One interesting note about pilgrimage is that everyone wears the same outfit and therefore there is a loss of rank, wealth and privilege. You might be standing next to a poor person or a princess. There are a bunch of ritual acts everyone performs together such as the circling around the Ka’ba a number of times and the visits you can make to other important holy sites and places 18 involved with the early history of Islam. If you are familiar with the life story of Malcolm X or have read his autobiography you will realize how important an event it is to go on pilgrimage. Malcolm X was involved with the Black Muslims in the United States and really hated white folks for the most part. But he had an enlightening experience in Mecca where he saw white people, brown people, black people, etc. all worshipping Allah together in peace and harmony. This changed him and his ideas about how to change racism. Unfortunately he was killed shortly after his return to the United States. So, as with the other pillars, there is more than just the physical act in going on pilgrimage. Ultimately it is to be seen as a spiritual event. “Perhaps the best explanation is that of the great medieval theologian al-Ghazali. He pointed out that the hajj is meant to be a supreme act of Islam, of submission and self-abnegation. That which is less than rationally appealing or satisfying to refined feeling can do much to purify and eliminate the egotism that easily lingers in a heart that considers itself refined. The hajj is an act of sheer devotion and of sheer identification with the inscrutable mind of God and with the Islamic tradition. It affirms that at the center of true religion is the finite human facing the infinite mystery of God, not the satisfaction of human inclinations” (MPMF, pp. 389-390.) It is considered a real honor to have completed a pilgrimage and it is a significant turning point in the life of each person who goes. Much like a baptism or Bar or Bat Mitzvah, this is a “before and after” event. While all people are encouraged to make the pilgrimage it is realized that not everyone is able to go due to financial or health problems, etc. So it is not like breaking a commandment. If you don’t go you don’t end up in hell or something awful like that. But it is considered sad and unfortunate, like missing the wedding of a close family member or best friend. It is something you want to make every effort to attend if you can. Needless to say, the pilgrimage was a much more difficult and time-consuming event in the days before jet travel! Prayers and Mosques Earlier I skipped over the second pillar of Islam regarding prayer. Now it is time to take a closer look at that pillar which is so important to the practicing Muslim. “Five times a day the faithful Muslim’s mind and heart, perhaps prompted by the muezzin, turns away from the things of the world to prayer” 19 (MPMF, p. 390.) The muezzin is the prayer leader who traditionally stands on top of the tower located on most mosques and calls the people to worship. More often than not in modern times, Muslims will make use of a loudspeaker system and a recorded message. If you ever visit a predominantly Muslim country the call to prayer will be one of the outstanding memories you will have. Prayers begin with a ritual washing. All mosques contain fountains and running water for this purpose. “Before prayers, one must be in a state of purification. This is attained by formal washing” (MPMF, p. 390.) This washing is a symbol of the deeper purification that is sought. A Muslim tries to let go of the stresses and worries of the moment, clear his or her head, and focus on Allah. This is the real purification and spiritual discipline required by regular prayer. “Several further conditions should be met, if possible, out of respect for this sacred action. One should pray in a clean place free of defilement. For this reason, many Muslims use special small carpets, prayer rugs, which they spread over the place of prayer. One must be modestly dressed. Before beginning, one must articulate in one’s mind the intention to say the right prayers. Finally, one must pray facing in the direction of Mecca” (MPMF, p. 390.) This may sound overly complicated, but once the Muslim is use to the routine he or she can quickly fulfill these outer conditions. For example, modern American Muslims will keep a prayer rug with them and set it up facing Mecca in an empty room or office during their breaks at work or school. Most of the time a Muslim prays alone or with family at home, but whenever possible a Muslim will prefer to pray with the community. “The mosque is the ideal place for corporate prayers, and the noon prayers on Friday are generally recited there. This is the major weekly Muslim service; in it certain additional prayers are offered, and two sermons, separated by a short break, are delivered by the Imam, or learned teacher, retained by the mosque” (MPMF, p. 391.) This Friday service is important to keep in mind if you decide to visit a mosque for your final project. You won’t be able to find services on a Sunday like you will at a Christian service or a Saturday at a Jewish service. However, some people pray at a mosque every day you may be able to attend a service any day of the week if you call around. Mosques are usually very simple. They are often a large empty room whose floors are covered by Persian rugs for the comfort of those praying. “The typical architecture of the mosque was originally inspired by the Arab house 20 with its large courtyard and by the basilica-type Christian churches of conquered lands, some of which were converted into mosques … Far simpler in ornamentation than most churches and temples of other faiths, yet imposing and monumental, the mosque well reflects the austerity and majesty of Islam and its God” (MPMF, p. 392.) It should be noted that prayers in Islam are quite physical as people move, bow, and place their foreheads on the ground in front of them in a number of stylized movements. People familiar with a Roman Catholic service where there is sitting, standing, and kneeling will be more comfortable with this style of prayer. Historic Islam We have discussed some of the religious aspects of Islam such as Muhammad, the Qur’an and the Five Pillars. Throughout those discussions I stressed the role of community in Islam and the fact that Islam is a culture and society as well as a religion. Now it is time to take a closer look at Islam as a historical movement. Besides being a religious leader, Muhammad was a very strong political leader. Arabia at the time of Muhammad was broken up into a bunch of tribes who were often at war with each other. There were the Persian, Ethiopian, and Byzantine empires, but they did not include Arabia. Muhammad knew that for his people to thrive they needed to unite. He was able to bring all of Arabia under Muslim rule before he died. How was Muhammad able to do this? What was he really like? “Unlike other religious founders, Muhammad died a popular hero among his people, a ruler, a successful diplomat, politician, and general. He was also a mystic visionary, but there was nothing ethereal about him. Instead he seemed to his people a man larger than life in many senses: warmhearted, full of cheerful humor, a planner of stratagems, a marshal who rode into battle with his troops and held his following together by the force of his personality when all seemed darkest – yet also a seer deep in prayer and vision alone in the desert, a rock of convinced faith and principle and of a trustworthy and sympathetic nature. From this complex and extraordinary man came the Islamic faith that seems at once made for humans as they are, with their needs for politics, laws, war, and sexual expression – and made for God as he is at his most magnificent: personal, creative, sovereign, and glorious, calling humans to total submission” (MPMF, pp. 393-394.) Like Judaism, Islam is very much a “this world” religion. They do have an afterlife to which they look forward to arriving, but this life here and now is not to be 21 slighted. It is not a monastic religion, but a religion of real people struggling with the real world. This trait is still a large part of Islam and part of the reason it still attracts so many people. Muhammad’s followers expanded Islam past the borders of Arabia to include much of the known world. “Within a century, the caliphs (“deputies” of the Prophet as temporal ruler), who were successors of Muhammad, ruled from Spain and Morocco to the Indus in the East” (MPMF, p. 394.) If you remember how long it took Christianity to spread and how Christianity was confined to Europe for many hundreds of years it gives you some perspective on how fast Islam spread. This rapid spread of Islam was also its most vibrant time. These were the golden years. “The years of the Baghdad caliphate (750-1258) and of the Cordova caliphate in Spain (755-1236) were the glorious years of early Islamic civilization. In the caliphates, art, science, and philosophy matured – thanks in part to Muslim revival of ancient Greek wisdom and the transmission West of lore from India. Modern mathematics has roots in the Arabic system of numbers and the zero, which the Muslims borrowed from India but whose use they explored. The Greek classics, including the philosophy and science of Plato and Aristotle, came back to Europe in the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance by way of the Muslim world” (MPMF, p. 394.) Muslims invented Algebra and made many scientific advances. Muslims did not experience a division between science and religion like Christianity did for so long. Science, the exploration of the natural world, was an honored field and also considered a way of coming to know God. The Church would often suppress scientific knowledge if it felt this knowledge conflicted with the Bible or Church tradition. Muslims never encountered these types of problems, at least in its early years. But as we have seen with other religions, the belief in divine revelation can become a conservative trait as things change in the world and people try to keep the original tradition alive and healthy. New ideas and new trends begin to seem threatening. We have seen this stagnation occur in both Christianity and Judaism. While Islam expanded and thrived in the external world, internally things were becoming frozen. “Internally, the shari’a had a stultifying effect, as in case after case it became more and more fixed. The rule of law believed to 22 have Divine sanction inevitably made society static, putting a premium on conformity rather than innovation and new ideas” (MPMF, p. 394.) Each religion has to figure out best how to do this. Reformers are needed who have the magic of renewing the tradition in its deepest sense without so watering down the religion that it is no longer recognized as itself. Throughout Islamic history, its civilization has found unique ways to express itself in artistic creation; perhaps the most outstanding form would be calligraphy. As with the Jews, Muslims do not believe that artists should make pictures of Allah, for he is believed to be beyond any human image or likeness. “Although not directly Qur’anic, the idea that representation led to idolatry early became almost universal in the Muslim world” (MPMF, p. 396.) Even though it is not forbidden in the Qur’an, this tradition has the force of law. It is one reason you will not see images in mosques. But you cannot completely suppress the need to create art. Many people have a real need to find a creative outlet and express themselves. One Islamic form of art that has become famous and has to do with their love of the Qur’an is their very beautiful calligraphy. Since Allah is revealed in the written Qur’an there is no fear of making the words as beautiful as possible. As in the Eastern Orthodox tradition in Christianity, Islamic art has taken on the values of what the Orthodox call icons. That is, sacred art reveals something of the mystery of the spiritual world. “So also the paintings that illumine the pages of books and sometimes the walls of schools and tombs give more a sense of conveying mystical rather than ordinary reality” (MPMF, p. 398.) A person is drawn in and is asked to look past the surface to the hidden meanings of the text. Sometimes a text written in calligraphy is surrounded by arabesque designs, which will also sometimes decorate mosque walls and ceilings. “In the same way as the arabesque [calligraphy like drawings], these ostensibly representational works actually do not show the world as it is but as it appears to one whose eyes are opened to the presence of the God within and above all that is, and so they preserve a sacred, not a worldly or idolatrous, vision. The famous Persian carpets also often have a comparable sacred message; the spot in the center upon which the elaborate design focuses is an opening from time into eternity” (MPMF, p. 398.) For many people spirituality and creativity go together and help nurture each other. 23 In literature, Islamic civilization created some of the world’s greatest poetry. As stated earlier, the best selling poet in the United States is a Sufi poet who lived long ago named Rumi. “In Islamic literature, poetry has been of far more importance than prose, for the two most influential literary languages of Islam – Arabic and Persian – lend themselves well to poetry and have highly exalted poetic feeling” (MPMF, p. 398.) The Qur’an itself is considered a work of not only religious and spiritual genius, but also a literary masterpiece. Perhaps because so many Muslims memorize great sections of the Qur’an they have it working deep in their minds and it helps give expression to the great poetry of Islam. The Sufi’s took this love of poetry and their love of Allah and used it to write some of the greatest verse in the world. “It is in the mystical tradition, above all in Persia, that the spiritual verse of Islam flowers. As much influenced by the secular poetry of wine and love as by the Qur’an, these songs of the spirit boldly use the language of intoxication and carnal passion to speak of the relation of the soul to God, the supreme Friend and Lover. They celebrate the “inebriate of God” beside himself with Divine love, yet still able to express that love in soaring verse” (MPMF, p. 398.) Rumi wrote that we should “Let the beauty we love be what we do. There are hundreds of ways to kneel and kiss the ground.” One meaning of this is that the infinite God can be served and worshipped in an infinite number of ways. Philosophy, Science, and the Intellectual Life of Islam Intellectual life was very much alive during the golden years of Islamic civilization. When you have a text that needs to be read, studied, and then applied to society it fosters the intellectual life of those charged with this task. “Another very important motif, intrinsic to Islam and related to court and mosque alike, is the prestige given to scholarship because of the importance of the law and so of its right interpretation. Members of the ulama, or body of learned men, adorned courts and presided in mosques; they also founded universities and searched out the philosophical underpinnings of faith” (MPMF, p. 399.) It seems that once the initial revelation is accepted in the religions we have studied, then it becomes the task of theologians to explain this text to the people. To do this it is necessary to understand the culture and the worldview of the people you are talking to. This is how philosophy enters the picture. We have seen this in Judaism with the formation of the Talmud and in Christianity as it 24 encountered the world of Greek philosophy and Roman law. Religions must adapt to their surroundings to some extent. How much they should adapt is always one of the crucial questions faced by religious leaders. Islam was able to make advances in knowledge at a time new intellectual breakthroughs were at an all time low in Europe. “The scientific work of the Golden Age of Islamic civilization has rightly been much acclaimed. Learned Arab men of the Baghdad caliphate and the Spanish caliphate preserved classical Greek and Roman scholarship and transmitted to Europe much of importance from farther East” (MPMF, p. 399.) For example, in math the concept of the number zero was brought from India to the Western world by way of Islam. This allowed mathematics to make progress and this progress allowed science to continue to develop. “They also made substantial advances in such varied fields as astronomy, optics, medicine, geography, and chemistry. Had it not been for the world of Islam, ancient learning would undoubtedly have been lost to a much greater extent than it was, and important advances that set the stage for modern science would not have been possible” (MPMF, p. 399.) Progress was seen as a good thing in Islam, an unfolding of Allah’s will for humans. Rationalism and Mysticism in the Development of Islamic Thought Whenever you study religion you see a number of basic ways of relating to spiritual revelation. One of these ways is the way of the rationalists and another way is the way of the mystics. As with all generalizations you must be careful to not make them too rigid, for many people bridge both ways. But it is still a good way to approach the study of religion and how people respond to revelation. People with a philosophical bent want religion to make sense. They see the universe as composed of laws that follow a certain logic. Because of this they assume that the creator of the universe is a lawful being that can be understood best when the laws of existence are understood and put into practice. These people are often called rationalists. An example of a rationalist school of philosophy in Islam: “A very significant early school of Islamic thought was the Mu’tazila, founded by Wasil ibn Ata (699-749). It exhibited a strong rationalist tendency. What God does is always what is best according to reason, and reason is equal to revelation and superior to tradition as a source of truth, according to the Mu’tazila thinkers” (MPMF, p. 400.) Many times it is easy for religious people to put a great deal of stress on how things have been understood or 25 done in the past. This is called tradition. Tradition is very important in organizations like the Roman Catholic Church. It is believed that not only the revelations of God are important, but also the ways those revelations were first understood and applied is very important. But rationalists want traditions to be subject to the law of reason. If a tradition does not make sense then we should be able to let go of it. Revelation is important, but so is using the mind that God gave us. This sounds fine until one person finds him or herself struggling to make a decision where the mind says one thing and the heart says another. Then what is one to do? We all know people who will follow their heart rather than their head. To the logical person this may seem like a mistake and yet time tells a different story. Often the person who followed their heart is the one proved right in the end, or if not absolutely right then at least happier with the results of their decisions. Mystics tend to fall in line with those who follow their hearts. They see a purpose for reason and rationality, but they also see its limits. They tend to respond differently than the rationalists. “A reaction that was to condition all subsequent mainstream Islamic theology came through the writings of Abul-Hasan al-Ash’ari (873-935), from which Ash’arism developed. He taught that Divine actions couldn’t be explained in terms of human reason. God is simply absolute power and grace, mysterious rather than reasonable on the human level, to be adored and obeyed” (MPMF, p. 400.) At this point it is good to remember our discussion of the pre-rational, and trans-rational distinction. To admit that God may be bigger than we can rationally take in does not mean that we have to live and act on a pre-rational level. Mystics are not stupid people. They argue that reason must be used until it no longer serves a purpose. At that point one must allow a transrational (but not irrational!) understanding to take the place of reason. Mystics accept the fact that the universe and God have more mystery to them than we can solve with all of our knowledge. While Islam has its own unique understanding of these two ways - rational and mystical - it is important in a philosophy class to see that these two ways are universal and found in all of the world’s religions. One way of understanding the above distinctions if you find them difficult is to think of personality differences. People are very different from one another and yet it is also easy to group people in two basic categories - the extroverts and the introverts. Some people are more social and outer directed than others. These are the extroverts. Other people are more solitary and inner directed. These are the introverts. They have much in common as 26 human beings, but they also have unique ways of relating to the world. The same can be said of religious traditions. Sometimes the mystics have more influence and sometimes the rationalists. The important thing to keep in mind is that these ideas are not to be seen in rigid categories. Many people have a pretty nice balance between being extroverts and introverts. If we will look at our own lives we will see that sometimes we are more introverted and other times more extroverted. From an Integral Philosophy perspective it is good to have both ways. Neither the mystical nor the rationalist position is “better” than the other. Both are needed. In fact, the most holy people are often very mystical and very rational at the same time. There are not a lot of stupid saints in this world! Sunni and Shi’a Islam Besides rationalists and mystics, there are two other divisions in Islam that are important to know about. These divisions tend to be more political than spiritual or mental, but they are notable and need to be addressed. These divisions go back right to the beginning of Islam and had to do with differences over who was to succeed Muhammad as leader of the Muslims. “The most important division today is between the Sunni and Shi’a traditions. Sunni Islam is the normative Islam of most places except Iran. Shi’a Islam is the official Islam of Iran, is dominant in southern Iraq, and is represented by minorities in Lebanon, Pakistan, India, Yemen, and elsewhere” (MPMF, p. 401.) Sunni Islam contains the great majority of Muslims, about 85%. “Sunna means “well-trodden path,” and it refers to the consensus of traditional legal and social practices, as well as referring to the majority Islamic community that claims to be founded on the authentic and correct consensus tradition” (MPMF, p. 401.) Rather than have a single, central authority (a Pope like figure) Sunni Islam relies on the consensus of a group of scholars to reach decisions regarding beliefs and practices. During the heights of Islamic civilization, when Caliphs ruled the empire, there was a greater central authority located in their courts. But today, each Muslim country is self-governing. It is true that certain leaders may gain a great level of respect and are, therefore, looked upon as a greater authority, but this is not a hereditary or an elected position. Rather it is a natural authority. 27 However, this traditional position is not accepted in Shi’a Islam. “Shi’a Islam, the Islam of Iran, southern Iraq, and minorities elsewhere, is different in tone and more complex. Shi’ites believe that after Muhammad there was intended to be a succession of Imams, divinely appointed and authoritative teachers of Islam, to guide the faithful” (MPMF, p. 402.) These leaders, believed by Muslims as divinely chosen, have as a result a great deal of authority and charisma. Interestingly, they believe that the twelfth Imam who was born in 869 is still alive but hidden. He will be revealed at the end of time as “the Imam Zaman, or Mahdi, the Imam for All Time” (MPMF, p. 405.) In many ways this Imam plays a messianic role (bringing justice and peace to all of the earth), a role familiar from Judaism and Christianity. Jews are waiting for a messiah figure and Christians are waiting for the second coming of Christ. Now you see that Shi’a Muslims are waiting for the Mahdi to arrive. Abraham Joshua Heschel once asked: “Since all three religions are waiting for a messianic-like figure to appear, wouldn’t it be great if they could wait together in peace?” The Sunni’s and Shi’a Muslims share much the same faith in the prophet Muhammad, the holiness of the Qur’an and the Five Pillars, but they are still divided today as can be seen in the aftermath of the United States war in Iraq when Sunni’s and the Shi’a are at odds about power and control in postSaddam Iraq. “The basic difference between Sunni and Shi’a Islam on the question of authority is clear: for Sunni Islam it derives from ijma, consensus of the community; for the Shi’a it is entirely centralized, in theory, in the Imam or his deputies, whom the faithful are to hear and obey” (MPMF, p. 405.) Many people have made claims to be the Mahdi until times prove him false. But while in the ascendancy he is able to attract almost fanatical devotion from his followers. Many Shi’a Muslims wondered if the Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran (during the Islamic revolution in the 1970’s and 1980’s) would be revealed as the Mahdi. This was one reason why he had such great authority. Islamic Mysticism In a strange twist of fate, Western people tend to be more familiar with Islamic mysticism than they are with Islam itself. With most religions people tend to know more about the mainstream beliefs than they do the more hidden and esoteric beliefs of the mystics. But, if only for the poetry alone as mentioned before, Islamic mysticism is fairly well known in the West and is called Sufism. No one knows for sure where the word “Sufi” comes from 28 but many scholars thinks it comes from the Arabic word suf that refers to the woolen garments worn by many Islamic mystics at one time. “A discussion of Islam would be superficial if it dealt only with its outward, official history and practices and left out the mystical wing, which has frequently given the faith of Muhammad another face. This tradition is known to the West as Sufism and its practitioners as Sufis. Their God is the same God as that of the Qur’an and the tradition. But they seek not only to follow his external commandments but also to know him intimately and even to lose themselves in love into the depths of his being. Around the Sufis’ mystic quest have clustered a number of auxiliary practices, many of great beauty: spiritual masters, parables and wisdom tales, spiritual fraternities, schools of meditation, and techniques of attaining ecstasy through music, chanting, and dance” (MPMF, pp. 407-408.) As we saw with the division in religions between rationalists and mystics, another common motif in religions is some form of monasticism. While neither Judaism nor Islam has formal monks, they both have movements that are somewhat similar. In Judaism the Hasidic folks gave themselves to religious devotion and service with the same degree of commitment as Catholic monks. These folks in Islam are the Sufi’s. Sufi’s often gather around an acknowledged master of the spiritual life. On an outer level they live as ordinary Muslims. They have jobs and get married and have families and must follow the Five Pillars and all other ordinary rules. But they also add a great deal of special practices to their lives. These practices go all the way back to beliefs about Muhammad meditating in the cave where he received his revelations. Surely, Sufis believe, Muhammad was undergoing special rites known to the mystics of all times. These are the ways one becomes open to the presence of God. “Many Sufis believe not only that their way is that of Muhammad himself, but also that Sufism is really a timeless path known to the wise in all generations, just as in a sense Muhammad’s declaration was but a restoration of the true primordial faith of Abraham and of Eden. Doubtless there is truth to this, represented historically by the parallels and possible influence between Sufism and Asiatic shamanism, Greek Neoplatonism, Christian monasticism, and the lore of Hinduism and Buddhism” (MPMF, p. 408.) The more you study world religions the more you become aware of not only similar beliefs, but similar practices. As we saw in Christianity, monasticism flourished when Christianity became aligned with the Roman Empire. One of these reasons is that 29 Christianity was no longer difficult and dangerous as understood by the common person. Monasticism gave people a chance to really give everything to God. Islam also experienced a certain level of “easiness” with its quick success in becoming an empire. It should not be surprising at this point to realize that whenever a religion becomes too comfortable, there will be those who seek a more difficult path of purification, sacrifice and love. “Within Islamic history, Sufism became visible as a movement about a century after Muhammad. Like Shi’a but in a different way, Sufism was a reaction against the luxury and corruption, the loss of original desert simplicity and pure faith, which many serious Muslims saw overtaking the newly triumphant Islamic world of the caliphates” (MPMF, p. 408.) We see this even in sporting events. It used to be that a marathon was a big deal. But now that thousands are completing marathons there are those who seek a more difficult challenge by doing super marathons like the “Ironman” in Hawaii. As Sufism became more defined it also became more structured and philosophical. It developed systems and those systems saw one’s spiritual life in developmental terms. One progresses from a state of ignorance to awakening to complete union with God where the identification with God is so strong that one is no longer aware of oneself as a separate self. “Abu Yazid al-Bistami (d. 874) described the stages of the spiritual life leading up to fana, complete passing away of the separate individual self into God. The fana state was often manifested in ecstatic spiritual intoxication. In that state, al-Bistami, hardly knowing whether it was he or God in him whose words they were, did not shrink from such expressions as ‘I am your Lord,’ ‘Praise be to me, how great is my majesty,’ or ‘My banner is greater than that of Muhammad.’ The conventional were duly shocked” (MPMF, p. 409.) The shock comes from a “normal” person believing that the mystic is on a massive “ego trip” and is blaspheming God. This is a classic “pre-trans fallacy” where a trans-rational comment is understood on a pre-rational level. Most religious traditions have a history of persecuting mystics. Mystics are considered problematic because they are not easy to control and do not always follow the standard rules and expectations. As a result they make ordinary religious folk feel uncomfortable. “In 922, one of these Godpossessed persons of uninhibited rapture, al-Hallaj, was executed at Baghdad for saying “I am the Truth” – “Truth” being an attribute of Allah. The tragic al-Hallaj had taken Jesus, in Islam the exemplar of the inward mystic, as his 30 model of the God-incarnate man, and he was sentenced to the same fate as Jesus: crucifixion” (MPMF, p. 409.) Many religious people “believe” in God without actually “knowing” God. When someone comes along who claims that they know God than the believer assumes that they are lying or deluded. Many of the great saints of all of the world’s religions have been persecuted and condemned and even killed before they are later recognized as saints. While it is true that some people after a radical mystical experience will think that they are above normal expectations and rules, this is not traditional or accepted by the true masters of the spiritual life. Mystics are expected to live up to all the normal rules and expectations, but they are also expected to go beyond them not by dropping the rules but by deepening them and making outward actions symbolize inner actions. “Sufi masters generally have emphasized doing the normative devotions of Islam but with a special mind to the inward as well as the outward aspects. But beyond that, there are particular ecstatic techniques for knowing God that the shaykhs [a spiritual guide] taught: practices such as dhikr (or wird), reciting the beautiful names of God on beads; or even whirling dances like those of the dervishes.” (MPMF, p. 410.) Sometimes you will hear in the paper about a demonstration of the Whirling Dervishes. I encourage you to check it out. If you have never read Rumi or some of the other Sufi poets you might want to check them out sooner rather than later. They are extremely beautiful and moving words. Islam in the World Today You only have to glance at the evening news to realize that Islam has a large presence in the modern world. “At the beginning of the twenty-first century, Islam finds itself second only to Christianity in number of active members among the religions of the world” (MPMF, p. 412.) Not only is it large but it is also experiencing a renaissance of spirituality, activity and political strength. Only a hundred years ago Islam was considered a backward and devastated religion. “In 1900, the Muslim world was notoriously in decline compared to Europe and America. It was sunk in poverty and technologically backward. Much of it was subject to humiliating European colonial rule” (MPMF, p. 412.) The Muslim world was going through a time much like the Christian “dark ages.” So much changed during the last century. Christianity could envision a whole world turned Christian, but instead, many of the traditionally 31 Christian lands have seen a loss of interest in religious practice. The Orthodox are making a slow recovery in nations under the former Soviet Union and Buddhism was nearly wiped out in China under Communism. Despite these setbacks for two of the oldest religions, Islam has managed to turn things around and move forward. “By the last quarter of the twentieth century this situation [of Islamic decline] changed dramatically. Rarely since the stunning spread of Islam in its first century have the fortunes of a religion changed so remarkably in so short a time. Virtually all Muslim nations have attained independence” (MPMF, p. 412.) As a result of this independence many countries are trying to reestablish modern nations under traditional Islamic law. This is an ongoing and controversial policy and we have yet to see how it will all turn out. But no one who knows the histories of religious movements can express anything other than surprise at the turn around of Islam in the last century or so. Islam is not only the second largest religion but it is currently the fastest growing religion in the world. “Islam is growing rapidly, both through a high birthrate in many places and through missionary efforts. Emigration and the establishment of Islamic centers have given the religion a new visibility around the world. Islam is also experiencing vigorous intellectual ferment and powerful movements for simplification and purification of the faith and its practice” (MPMF, p. 412.) By having a strong belief system, strict rules and laws, and a strong emphasis on community, Islam proves to be a popular source of support for many people who find the rapid changes of modern life disconcerting and troubling. We see the same type of support in the United States with the growing support for “traditional family values” and conservative politics. Obviously we are dealing with a human psychological need that then manifests itself in unique ways depending on the religious tradition closest to the heart and mind of the people. But the energy that fuels the movement is the same energy, or so it seems to many scholars who study this kind of sociological phenomenon. The irony is that conservative Americans (religious or not) often have the biggest concerns and worries about the growth of Islam. But they might have less to fear if they understood the underlying dynamics and saw how much they shared with Islam’s desire to preserve a way of life that they believe is ordained by God. Knowing some history, especially the history of ideas, can help a person keep things in perspective. “However one assesses it, Islam seems in a period of religious ferment and renewal associated with nation-building and 32 expanding confidence, perhaps comparable to the Protestant Reformation in the Christian world. As did the Protestant Reformation, the Islamic resurgence has also produced much war and bigotry. Yet nonetheless, the Reformation helped wrench Europe into new stages of historical development. What Islam will generate remains to be seen” (MPMF, p. 412.) Or one can think of the Civil War in the United States where so many bad things happened but in the end most people believe that the country emerged not only stronger but better as well. Islam is in the midst of many changes and it is all too easy to come up with quick judgments about what it all means. Perspective is so important here. “Four principles have been fundamental to the Islamic resurgence since the late 1970s: 1. 2. 3. 4. The shari’a, or systematized code of Islamic law based on the Qur’an and the traditions, must be the fundamental law of the state. To ensure that state policies and actions are consistent with the sharia’a, Muslim teachers and scholars should have an important role in government, thus achieving what in the West would be called a union of church and state. Wealth must be fairly distributed in accordance with Islamic ideals of justice and brotherhood. Outside (non-Muslim) influences in society must be resisted, and the lifestyle of the people should conform to Islamic rules and values, as in matters of dress, family life, education, and the role of women” (MPMF, p. 413.) Before one can judge whether or not he or she agrees with something like the union of church and state (as in point two above) one must at least be able to see this idea from the perspective of Muslims. For example, Muslims look at the history of the United States, Soviet Union and China and they do not see so much to admire. They see problems with both communism and capitalism. They understand that the history of both movements is not as pretty as many of us would like to think. At the very least they look at the 100 million people killed in wars during the 20th century as being primarily the victims of the Western world not Islam. If these religions and political philosophies are so great then why were there so many killed? Why is there so much poverty and unemployment? Why are there homeless people on the streets and so many working people without medical insurance? The answers to these difficult questions may not be easy and they may not be 33 found in Islam, but that the West has serious problems gives Islam at least the right to question the values that so many of us born in the United States or other modern countries have taken for granted such as the separation of church and state. This perspective is important when looking at a country like Afghanistan. We see women veiled and not allowed to go to school. This is a real concern. But let us remember the horrible history of recent years to gain a better understanding of why a conservative and traditional understanding of Islam might have had some appeal to many of the people desperate for some stability and calm. “Perhaps it is no surprise that, after the nineteen-year war with the Soviet Union ended with the Soviet withdrawal in 1989 and the several years of civil war that followed, a promise of peace and stability, and a return to Islamic fundamentals, was welcome by the majority of the people” (MPMF, p. 416.) This explains the rise of the Taliban. The Taliban (“students of Islamic studies”), a fundamentalist Islamic sect, recently controlled the country of Afghanistan. “Soon after gaining power, the Taliban introduced repressive policies based on narrow interpretations of Islamic law, even from the perspective of those in other Islamic nations” (MPMF, p. 416.) While not all Muslims agreed with their interpretations of the Qur’an and Islamic law, the Taliban did offer stability to a country that had been overwhelmed with more than twenty years of war and destruction. Understanding how these movements grow and gain support does not mean that we have to approve of them. The Taliban are so conservative even most Muslims disagree with the Taliban. But at least we can disagree with some perspective on what needs these movements serve. In doing this we may be able to provide more acceptable alternatives that seek to meet these same needs for structure, stability, and safety. While the majority of Muslims disagree with the Taliban, Afghanistan is not the only country to give them support. “Although American Muslims, as well as other Muslims around the world, condemned the Taliban, decrying the Taliban’s policies as contrary to the Qur’an, there has been considerable support for the Taliban elsewhere, for example in Pakistan” (MPMF, p. 417.) This shows that those who care about peace and prosperity and human rights have to find ways to meet the needs of people who are exhausted from constant war and all its accompanying worries. Islam in America 34 There are about 7 million Muslims in the United States. While still fairly small in numbers, there are more Muslims than Hindus or Buddhists. “Islam is a minority but a growing religious presence in the United States. Immigration, important diplomatic and commercial relationships between the United States and the Islamic world, and conversion have all contributed to the remarkable growth in numbers and visibility of this faith in the United States since the middle of the twentieth century” (MPMF, p. 419.) Immigrants often have to put up with the suspicions of others. These suspicions are based on stereotypes that are as dangerous for Muslims as they are for others who get caricatured by popular thought and the media. Just look at movies. Movies always seem to have the need for bad guys and good guys going back to the “Cowboys and Indians” films of early Hollywood. During the Cold War years most movies featured the free West fighting the Russians and other Communists, but not so long ago these movies were discontinued and the new enemy were Arabs and terrorists from the Middle East. This one example demonstrates how popular images of people become engrained in human consciousness and begin to influence the way we think about others. Hopefully students of a class on world religions will not fall prey to such shallow representations of peoples and their philosophies. Muslims are gaining a whole new understanding of their religion as they combine their faith with American citizenship. Many religions have come to America and the United States has been influenced, but America also changes the religions that come here. The United States was founded on some philosophical ideas (such as freedom of religion) that are really quite new in this world and very challenging to religions which see themselves as the “one true faith.” These religions are suddenly among a people who share political rights and responsibilities and yet might share very few religious values. In the past this was considered unheard of. “At the same time, learning how to be a Muslim in America has helped many Muslims to understand their religion in new and exhilarating ways. They have come to discriminate between what they now hold to be the essentials and what they hold to be merely cultural. Most Islamic centers serve Muslims from many parts of the Islamic world – Arabs, Africans, Iranians, Pakistanis, Indonesians, and others – contributing to a fresh and vital sense of Islam as a world community. Like religionists of all other faiths in the United States, they have learned to hold to it without any sort of state support in a pluralistic and open society” (MPMF, p. 419.) While people are often 35 threatened by freedom they usually find it helpful when they get used to it. Freedom does not mean that one has to give up his or her faith. It just means that one is not forced by law to attend services, etc. As a result, there is even hope that those who do attend services and participate in their religions do so out of faith and commitment rather than fear of condemnation and punishment. Many of you may have heard of the Nation of Islam. This is a uniquely American movement and a controversial version of Islam, at least in its earlier stages. “Many converts to Islam in the United States have been African American. The most influential force in this activity has been the work of Elijah Muhammad (1897-1975), founder of the “Black Muslims” or Nation of Islam, as they were called. The movement originally possessed unorthodox doctrines and staunchly advocated the separation of African and white Americans, but since Elijah Muhammad’s death it has moved closer and closer to normative Islam. Its best known adherent, Malcolm X, supported this move toward the end of his life” (MPMF, p. 420.) If you remember from earlier in this lecture, Malcolm X was profoundly changed by his pilgrimage to Mecca and his experience of community with Muslims of all races from around the world on this trip. It was at this time that he realized that the racists’ ideas of the Nation of Islam, while understandable, were not authentically Muslim, for Muhammad and the Qur’an taught the brotherhood and sisterhood of all people. As the population of Muslims grow, Islam “is bound to have a gradually increasing influence on American life” (MPMF, p. 420.) It is difficult to know for sure where this will lead, but both conservatives and liberals have much to watch for. Conservative religious folk will find that they have many friends among Muslims who share their values regarding how life should be lived. There may be some differences in opinion but as long as all agree that a spiritual life is marked by somehow submitting to the will of God then they have much in common. Liberals tend to see that they have much in common with the Sufis. The mystics of all traditions agree that what is important is living a life transformed by the love and presence of God. Such a life is a life of compassion and gratitude lived in service to others. No matter what their individual differences, mystics of all world traditions can share their love of compassion as the hallmark of a holy life. The Negative Side of Islam 36 In some ways it feels wrong to have a section on the negative side of Islam only because the negative side is all that so many know about. Nevertheless, it is important to look more closely at some of the stereotypes to see if we cannot figure out where they come from. As usual with the Western patriarchal religions the negative side is most easily seen in the relationship between Islam and women. Due to this importance and in keeping with the tradition of this course we will have a separate section on Islam and women following this section. Islam suffers from what any religion encounters when they believe they have a monopoly on truth. Because the Western religions have a shared belief in revelation, (the belief that God reveals his truth to humans), they tend to take their own revelations as definitive and final. Jews, as we have studied, had to be constantly challenged by their prophets to live up to their revelation and had an early history of persecuting those they encountered in the ancient Holy Land who did not follow the Jewish God. Christians, having experienced much more political power, were also guilty of gross distortions of their own teachings in the persecution of others who did not follow their beliefs. Islam too has had great power and so it too shares this dark history. Islam did preserve some respect for “people of the book,” that is Jews and Christians. So often enough Jews and Christians were left unharmed when Muslims took over a new territory, although they were subjected to greater taxation and special laws. But often enough, even this supposed respect for the other Abrahamic religions was not put into practice and as a result Christian and Jews often had to choose conversion, death, or enslavement. We are all too familiar with suicide bombers today due to recent political activities. This is a dark side of Islam that is hard to explain. But there seems to be some element of Islam that allows people to give vent to great fanaticism. Part of what makes people fanatical is an extreme devotion to a certain literal understanding of a teaching or revelation. Somewhere in the Qur’an it is remarked that one who dies in defense of their faith goes straight to heaven. This is no different than the Christian understanding that the martyrs who were killed in various persecutions demonstrated their holiness in their deaths and were thus honored immediately by God as saints. In Islam, perhaps because Islam is often seen as a society as well as a religion, someone can be convinced that if they die in a suicide bombing they are essentially dying the death of a martyr and this death is thus honored. The problem, as usual, depends on how we interpret these teachings. 37 The traditional idea of the martyr is some defenseless person who will not give into the authorities and thus allows him or herself to be killed rather than compromised. This is very different than someone who volunteers for not only death, but also a death that will take the life of innocent people. This person is not forced to die, but chooses to die. This is the big difference. There have even been people, such as Buddhists monks during the Vietnam War, who burned themselves to death as a protest against the war. Many religious people had a real problem with this. But at least the Buddhist monk only took his or her own life; they did not kill a bunch of innocent people. On the other hand, as we saw when discussing jihad, some Muslims believe that they are fighting a defensive war against the values of the United States infiltrating their countries and culture. They believe that nothing less is at stake than the survival of Islam. For the purposes of this class it is important to know that the vast majority of Muslim people reject these fanatical teachings about suicide bombers and see it as a gross distortion of the Qur’an. Islamic scholars and religious leaders from the Middle East as well as other areas of the world have repeatedly stated this even though it gets very little media coverage. The fact that suicide bombers continue to justify their understanding of what they are doing does not mean that fanatical Muslims accurately represent traditional Islam any more than fanatics accurately represent the faiths of any people. Strong devotion and committed faith is one thing. Fanaticism is another. Again perspective is all-important. Another dark side to Islam is its tendency to view difficult problems in a dogmatic fashion. Any time a revelation is written down this becomes a problem. A living tradition becomes written in stone and no one is allowed to suggest changes and different interpretations without the danger of being persecuted and excluded form the community. As we have seen, Islam was presented as a whole way of life. How is one to live that life in the modern world? Is it possible to live in a modern pluralistic society and still be Muslim? The many modern American Muslims who are making it work answer that question in a positive fashion. Take the example of something like pornography. Most Muslims would say that pornography is not a good thing. In a traditional Islamic society pornography would be illegal. But in a society like the United States pornography is legal for adults. So what is a Muslim to do? The same thing as Jews, Christians, and others who disagree 38 with pornography; they don’t have to buy it or look at it. Just because it is there does not mean you have to participate. Does that mean the temptations are more difficult? Possibly. But that does not mean they are insurmountable. Eventually people see that to not look at pornography when it is available actually has a power of goodness that is different from not looking at it just because it is not available. The same goes for drinking and other such things. Just because you can have an affair on your spouse without being punished for it does not mean you should. Choice, including making the wrong choices, is the price of freedom. Now it is time to look in more detail at the tale of women in Islam. Women in Islam Probably the most important thing to keep in mind when we discuss this subject is that the Muslims are not all the same all over the world. When we see a picture of a woman all dressed in black with nothing but her eyes showing in Afghanistan that is not the only image of a woman in Islam or even in the Middle East. “While all have the Prophet Muhammad and the Qur’an at their core, Islam’s many sociological expressions, theoretical interpretations, and practices have been greatly influenced by the cultural contexts in which Islam is found. Accordingly, the Islam of Egypt differs from that of Saudi Arabia, just as both differ from Islam found in the United States” (MPMF, p. 420.) This understanding of context and also the effort to separate Islam from Arab culture will be very important in this study. Also, an important part of this course that is surely obvious by now is to see how much these religions have in common. Islam and women is much like Christianity and women. Why is this? Because of what is known as patriarchy. All of the religions we have studied (except the early tribal religions) spring out of the last few thousand years when the world has been patriarchal. This has greatly influenced the context of the religions we are studying and it is another reason why knowing the world and history of ideas is so important. In this sense one of the first shared traits between Christianity and Islam in this area is that both Muhammad and Jesus showed a progressive attitude toward women that was far ahead of their times and that was quickly suppressed after their deaths. The fact that it was suppressed has not helped millions of women but it does allow modern feminists to go back and look at the original documents and come up with some surprising ideas about what 39 might have been had the disciples of these religious leaders been able to follow their founders in this area. And it leads to hope that more equitable solutions to pressing problems are still possible within the religions themselves. While women have the option in many societies to leave their religion they do not have this choice everywhere. And despite the way many women have been treated, they love and are devoted to their faith and simply want their faith to catch up with modern studies that tell a different story than the one we are currently familiar with. What did Muhammad and the Qur’an teach about women? “It is often said that the founding of Islam improved the status of women in its time” (MPMF, p. 421.) In fact, it is often argued that “Islam proclaimed the equal status of women at a time ‘when Christians were still contemplating whether women were fully human beings with souls!’” (MPMF, p. 421.) Muhammad himself “pronounced in favor of choice and rights for women, a position that flew in the face of the prevailing abuse of woman in tribal society of his time and place” (Matthew Fox, One River, Many Wells, [New York, New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 2000], p. 151 Hereafter referred to in the lectures as ORMW.) Muhammad also said: “All people are equal, as equal as the teeth of a comb. There is no claim of merit of an Arab over a non-Arab, or of a white over a black person, or of a male over a female. He who honors women is honorable, he who insults them is lowly and mean” (ORMW, p. 151.) Muhammad is also recognized as being a good husband. He was respectful and kind and expected others to do the same. At a time when many female babies were killed for not being sons he said: “He who has a female child and does not insult her and does not prefer his sons over her, will be ushered by God into paradise” (ORMW, p. 152.) And on his deathbed Muhammad said: “I urge you to treat women kindly. They are a trust. Be in awe of God’s trust” (ORMW, p. 152.) Before Muhammad women were treated as the personal property of fathers and husbands. They had no rights and could be used and abused as seen fit by the males around them. Islam taught that women were to have some say over their own finances. “A trust fund [was] established before the marriage in the woman’s name so that if she were divorced that fund would go to her. In Islam, women were allowed to inherit whereas previously they were forbidden inheritances. Women were no longer to be part of an inheritance, nor could they be taken as prisoners or booty in war. Islam established the right of women to own 40 property a full thirteen hundred years before Western culture established it as a right. Islam established the right and duty of women as well as men to learn” (ORMW, pp. 152-153.) These things are so much taken for granted now that we tend to forget that women were allowed to vote less than a hundred years ago in the United States. What Muhammad thought and taught was very radical. In fact, it was too radical for his followers and very soon after his death Islam retreated into more traditional patriarchal ways of dealing with women. How did they ignore the Prophet’s teaching? “The interpretation of passages in the Qur’an can lead to very different conceptualizations of Islamic law respecting women” (MPMF, p. 421.) As we have already seen when it comes to written text, they each have to be interpreted and the interpretation often says as much about the development of the interpreter as it does about the text. “Throughout the centuries and in different localities, the ambiguities arising from seemingly conflicting passages and different interpretations have resulted in various views of Islam’s injunctions with respect to women” (MPMF, p. 422.) The story of these various interpretations is what follows. Early Islam after Muhammad: The Continuation of Patriarchal Patterns There are a few examples of women, such as Muhammad’s wife Khadija, who seemed to have taken on some economic independence, but they were unusual. After Muhammad died women were soon restricted to their homes. “Whatever may have been intended regarding the status of women, soon after its founding, Islam adopted most of the patriarchal patterns of the monotheistic religions – Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism – that prevailed in the Middle East and the Mediterranean at the time of Islam’s founding. It also supplanted the polytheistic religions that had remained, along with their goddesses and the priestesses who served them (MPMF, p. 422.) Many women had found their spirituality nurtured by the polytheistic religions with their access to traditions about the goddess, but now women lost this outlet and source of inspiration. Some progress was made. In the past, when women were only considered property, women had no rights regarding whom they married. “In many ways, Muslim women were provided with rights unavailable to other women of the same time and place. For example, marriage was not to occur without the bride’s consent” (MPMF, p. 422.) This provided some protection, but in practice this was difficult to enforce. A woman may have to give her 41 consent, but there are many family and social pressures that can be put on a woman to make her submit to the arrangements made for her. As mentioned above, women could inherit property for the first time. There were some restrictions around this, but at least they had their rights established. “Under the Qur’an, women could own and inherit property, although a woman could only inherit one-half that of a man because she was not expected to provide for a family as was he. In addition, women’s religious obligations were the same as men’s, reflecting the Qur’anic teaching that men and women are equally worthy in the eyes of God” (MPMF, p. 423.) Making religious obligations the same without regard to gender is very important because it helps people realize that they cannot be just dismissed out of hand. If people (and thus women) count to God, then they have some inherent value that needs to be recognized by the community. Another controversial area regards polygamy. Many people automatically resent this idea, which is fine. It doesn’t make a lot of sense to most of us today. But it is important to know where the idea came from and what it was based on. “In addition, polygamy (marrying many wives), which was a common practice in pre-Islamic society, was severely limited. In some preIslamic tribes, each man had numerous wives – over seventy-five in some cases. However, the Qur’an permitted men to marry only up to four wives, and then only if the wives could be treated equally by the husband. The Qur’an also states that it is unlikely that wives can be treated equally and so urges the husband to choose only one” (MPMF, p. 423.) The fact that a man is required to treat his wives equally pretty much precludes more than one wife! In practice the vast majority of marriages are monogamous. While we may not like the fact that the Qur’an allows polygamy, it is important to realize that this restriction was a huge improvement at that time for women. And it is true that in those days due to incessant warfare there were far more women than men and women had almost no means of support if they were not married. However, rules on paper are not always put into practice. Many of the laws would have done much for women’s rights if they had been consistently practiced. But in fact they were not. “However, many of these developments were, in practice, greatly diminished as Islam developed. By the third century of Islam, despite the rights granted in the Qur’an, practices and customs of the localities prevailed” (MPMF, p. 423.) Local customs were 42 patriarchal and this is really the context in which women were treated for many centuries up until the present day. It is important to acknowledge this as one of the serious negative sides of Islam. The only caution is to not be blind to the fact that all of the religions we have studied have this same fault. We have already discussed the fact that humans seem to have a very difficult time living up to the teaching of the founders of each of the religions we have studied. One of the ways people rationalize not following the teachings of their founders is to talk about the problems of interpretations. “Whatever the source of such restrictive practices for women, religious sanctions for them were soon found by those interpreting the scriptures, and such practices have prevailed to such a degree that they have become identified inextricably with Middle Eastern Islam. By medieval times, the shari’a was codified and many customs and traditions of the times regarding women were included, despite dubious authority for them in the Qur’an” (MPMF, p. 423.) Jesus complained that the Jews had made too many “man made laws” rather than just following the Torah. Christians have been criticized for not living up to the great commandment of loving their enemies and praying for those who curse them. The human ability to rationalize away the great ideals of the religions is one way humanity has delayed living up to these ideals for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Another very controversial subject sometimes addressed by the media is female circumcision. While this is important enough to talk about it must be emphasized that this is a practice to which only a small minority of Muslims in Africa subscribe. It is by no means a universal practice or requirement. “Islam continued the common practice of circumcising male children. In addition, the practice of female circumcision was adopted in many places, and continues today, despite there being no authority for it in the Qur’an. The circumcision of females is much more involved than that for males because it involves a clitoredectomy, usually without anesthesia when the girl is between 7 and 8, and in some areas the operation is even more involved” (MPMF, pp. 425-426.) Female circumcision not only has nothing to do with the Qur’an, it is also not a necessary hygienic measure (as it supposedly is for males) and seems to have nothing to do with anything other than males trying to control the sexuality of females. Male circumcision does not ruin sexual pleasure for men, but female circumcision does exactly that and preventing a woman from enjoying sexual activity seems to be the only point to this operation. This procedure is very 43 controversial not only in itself, but also because some Muslims want to perform this operation in the United States where it is illegal. The controversy is that the argument is not based on medical issues but on religious issues. People who advocate for this surgery do so on the basis of religious freedom. We have seen that it is very easy to make illegal the things we do not understand. For example, Native Americans were prevented from using Peyote in their ceremonies and from participating in the Sun Dance. They are now allowed to do this since there has been increased understanding of the importance of these rites to their indigenousness traditions. The same argument is made here. And this also provides an excellent example of the problems of interpretation. Our country has passed laws that allow religious people to not receive medical treatment if it is against their religion, but they are not allowed to prevent their children from receiving medical treatment. In other words the government found a compromise in that it respects the rights of adults to make up their own mind but not to decide for their children. Perhaps the same issue will be used here. Perhaps some day adult women will be allowed to decide to have this surgery but young girls will continue to be protected. In a country like the United States where we have a separation of church and state these issues raise a lot of emotions for people. When does the government need to step back and not interfere with the right people have to practice their religion and when does the government need to step in and protect people? These are never easy questions to answer. Modern feminists look at many of the practices regarding women and ask the question: “What is their religious value? For example, is there a spiritual reason women need to be veiled? Or are these practices simply for men to control women?” “Veiling, segregation, seclusion, and female circumcision (where it has been practiced) can all be seen as the strategies adopted by Islam to achieve the same goals we have seen in nearly all of the preceding religions we have studied – the control of women’s sexuality for the preservation of chastity and the reproduction of sons for the husband’s family” (MPMF, p. 426.) If the issue is not spiritual but political then many women who want to stay in their religion demand that changes be made so that what is of spiritual value is guarded but what is of a bygone era and actually harmful to the dignity of women be changed. It can’t be emphasized enough that this is an ongoing struggle in all of the world’s traditions. 44 Throughout history there have always been some women who have managed against great odds to have an impact on Islamic spirituality. “From the beginning there have been women who have figured proudly in Islamic heritage and have served as models” (MPMF, p. 426.) Besides Khadijah who is respected for supporting Muhammad in his early quest to share his revelations, there was Aisha who he married after the death of Khadijah. Aisha was much younger than Muhammad and lived for forty years after his death. She had a huge influence on Islam because much of what we know of Muhammad’s life and teachings came from her lips. Without her testimony Islam would be much the poorer. “It is said that the Prophet told his followers to take half of the knowledge of his revelations from Aisha and the other half from the rest of his companions. More important, Aisha apparently had considerable authority in the early fledgling Muslim community. (Some reformers have argued that this provides evidence that women held high status in the early Medina community, and, therefore, that it should be so today) (MPMF, p. 427.) Muhammad’s daughter Fatima is also highly regarded as a saint and mystic. Today’s Middle Eastern Muslim Women and the Winds of Change While women’s rights are not nearly as advanced in some parts of the world as in the modern West, it does seem that changes have been started that nothing is going to stop even if there are setbacks here and there. We have seen similar changes in other areas of human rights such as the elimination of slavery first in one area and then eventually from all over the world. “Today economic considerations are influencing changes in many Islamic countries. Women have moved out of the home and into the workplace” (MPMF, p. 428.) It is still true that women in many places are restricted to what they are allowed to do for work and are usually segregated from men, but the fact that they are moving out of their homes and into the work world is a significant change. In other places women have broken down barrier after barrier to enter all sorts of fields that had been restricted to men alone for centuries. “In some countries, such as Egypt, Pakistan, Turkey, Bangladesh, and Jordan, many Muslim women hold important positions in leadership. Women are governmental officials, doctors, and professors, and hold positions in other professions as well. As these women shatter the mold of the stereotypes of women, there is an increasingly loud call to shatter the religious 45 justifications for restrictive practices as well” (MPMF, p. 428.) As women begin to take political leadership roles and do well in them it is difficult to avoid the question of why they can’t take religious leadership positions. And in fact, much of the modern scholarship challenging the roles of women in Islam are coming from women who are doing their homework and asking the critical questions about Muhammad, the Qur’an and early Islamic history. These questions are critical to shaking up the foundations of rigid and dogmatic teachings that were originally alive, fresh, and dynamic. “Women and men who favor women’s rights are reinterpreting the Qur’an and the shari’a and pushing for reforms that they contend are consistent with the original egalitarian spirit of Islam. There has been a revival of the principle of ijtihad (creative original interpretation) that was used by the early interpreters of the Qur’an but was abandoned when the shari’a became codified in the twelfth century. Reinterpreted texts through ijtihad have provided fodder for a feminist critique and reconsideration in modern times of Islamic practices regarding women” (MPMF, p. 428.) If you really want to see an old and established religion change then you usually need to know that tradition very well and argue from its own texts the changes you are seeking. Just as it is obvious that the best way to convince most Christians of a truth is to know the Bible really well and be able to quote it in support of your ideas, the same is true in Islam. There is no quicker way to bring about change than to understand the Qur’an and the history of its interpretation. As with the other religions we have studied it is important to not only understand the primary texts, but to also understand the philosophical ideas about context and relativism. “Today it is argued by reformists that the Qur’an must be read in the context of its time. This means that the egalitarian spirit held by such reformists to be at the core of the Qur’an is what should hold sway, particularly with respect to women, rather than applying the law in contemporary situations as it was applied then. The law as applied then, they argue, has more to do with acknowledging the social circumstances at that time rather than establishing set rules for all time. For example, they argue that when the Qur’an states that men are to be women’s “protectors”, it is acknowledging the precarious position that women experienced in the Prophet’s time; it did not establish a permanent paternalism that should apply in all times and places” (MPMF, p. 429.) Sometimes it is easy to fall into ruts in our thinking. We see the “protection” 46 of women as something ordained by God forever rather than a comment on what was relevant at the time. Some people will never change their ideas. But others find these type of reformist arguments liberating for suddenly they are given the words to articulate what before then had only been an intuition about what a modern revelation would say regarding women and women’s rights. If we believe in “absolutes” about God like justice and compassion then we need to ask ourselves what these qualities look like today realizing all along that each generation has to face these questions anew. Summary Islam is a religion that is very important to become familiar with in today’s world. It is growing very fast and becoming more popular in the United States. Because of problems in the Middle East and the popularity of fundamentalist forms of Islam the popular image of Muslims is very poor. If we are to continue to live and work together in peace in this country then it will be important for us to come to understand some general points about Islam. Islam is a religion of submission to God. A Muslim is one who submits their whole life to God. You show this submission by not only following the outer rules regarding the Five Pillars, or obligations, but also by trying to submit one’s inner life to the rule of Allah, the Muslim name for God. It is important to know that Muhammad is greatly respected but that he is not worshipped, as is Jesus in Christianity. He is not considered divine or uniquely special in any way. If there were any comparison to Jesus then it would be to the Qur’an, not Muhammad. The Qur’an is the revelation of God to the world. It is considered the last revelation by Muslims and not to be replaced by any other teaching. It is written in a beautiful Arabic that is impossible to adequately translate. Muslims often memorize the whole Qur’an and if not all, then great sections of it. Of central importance to the life of a practicing Muslim are the Five Pillars: “Reciting the creed that states that there is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet; praying five times daily; giving alms; keeping a fast during the month of Ramadan; and once in one’s life, if possible, making the pilgrimage to Mecca” (MPMF, p. 430.) Many of these are best practiced as parts of the community. For example, while it is important to 47 pray alone if you cannot pray with others, you are encouraged to pray with the community in the mosque. Part of the propaganda regarding Islam is that it is a backward religion. Not only is this not true in any absolute sense, but it also misses the rhythms of history. Islam has had a golden age. “During the Golden Age of the Caliphate, science, philosophy, and theology were extensively cultivated. Learned men not only preserved the best of classical thought but made important advances, which were finally transmitted to Europe” (MPMF, pp. 430-431.) More importantly, after centuries of repression, Islam is on its way back as a world religion full of new life and many changes that make it a power and spirituality to be reckoned with in no uncertain terms. “This resurgent Islam is a major force in the world today” (MPMF, p. 431.) There is no reason why Muslims can’t look forward to a new golden age. We also looked at how Islam divided shortly after the death of Muhammad. “Islam is divided into two main groups. Sunni Islam emphasizes the traditional path of Islamic life as interpreted by the consensus of scholars and the community. Shi’a Islam, while following the traditional path, also puts its faith in the authority of Imams who are Muhammad’s hereditary successors” (MPMF, p. 431.) The Sunnis are the much larger group comprising about 85% of Muslims worldwide. Some of the internal divisions in modern Iraq are between these two groups. Muslims have their own mystical understanding of Allah and spirituality. “Islamic mysticism, called Sufism in the West, focuses on the presence of the Divine oneness everywhere and offers paths to the attainment of union with God” (MPMF, p. 431.) Many people in the West are familiar with Sufi poetry and the Whirling Dervishes. These are outward expressions of the special practices and disciplines followed by those who undertake the Sufi path. All Sufis are required to follow the ordinary rules and obligations of Islam. But they also take on special responsibilities and duties in addition to the ordinary ones. Often they have a spiritual master who functions somewhat like a Hindu guru or a Christian spiritual director. We also looked at the negative side of Islam. As is usual at this point in the course we saw that most of the negativity does not lie within the original teachings themselves, but in the way they are put (or not put) into practice. A big part of this negativity is found in the way women are treated. However, “it is very difficult to make generalizations about women in Islam 48 as its practices differ in the many places it can be found around the world” (MPMF, p. 431.) Women are treated differently in different parts of the Islamic world. “Just as we have seen in many other religions, attitudes and customs from the social context in which Islam has found itself have been assimilated into Islamic culture and religious justifications have been found for them” (MPMF, p. 431.) Women are making rapid progress as they challenge local customs and the contexts of the times and ask people to rethink their traditional interpretations of the Qur’an in the light of modern studies and understandings of the feminine. Not surprisingly, it is in Sufism that women are the most highly regarded. Summary Based on Joachim Wach’s Three Forms of Religious Expression: MPMF, p. 385 Fundamental features of Islam THEORETICAL Basic Worldview: The world is for humans but under the absolute rule of God. God or Ultimate Reality: God, sovereign, personal, revealing himself and giving specific guidance to humanity. Origin of the World: Creation by God. Destiny of the World: To be destroyed on the Last Day, the day of judgment. Origin of Humans: Created by God. Destiny of Humans: To be judged on the Last Day and receive reward or punishment in the Second Creation. Revelation or Mediation Between the Ultimate and The Human The revelation in the Qur’an given through Muhammad, the last and greatest of the prophets. 49 PRACTICAL What Is Expected of Humans: To worship and serve God in accordance Worship, Practices, Behavior with his commandments: to observe the Five Pillars and the rest of shari’a. SOCIOLOGICAL Major Social Institutions: The whole Islamic community; the local Friday mosque community; the ulama, or body of teachers and preachers; Sufi orders; the ideal of the Islamic society. Islam is a fascinating religion. Once again, I urge you to keep this lecture and our text reading in perspective. They are short introductions to a major world religion and need to be studied much more carefully and fully. While I hope to have not led anyone astray about this faith and wisdom tradition, I also hope you realize how this was just a beginning. I hope you will use your newfound knowledge to talk to Muslim people. I can’t stress enough how important it is to learn about a religion from someone who actually practices it. At the same time you don’t have to take just any Muslim’s word as a final say either. Just as many Jews and Christians have differences among themselves, so do Muslims. We only gain a balanced view by talking to as many people and reading as much as we can. I also hope some of you will attend a service at a mosque for your final project. The vast majority of Muslims are anxious for you to know that they are peace loving and despise terrorists as much as anyone. And the best way to do that is to expose you to their beliefs and community. Bibliography: Robert S. Ellwood and Barbara A. McGraw, Many Peoples, Many Faiths: Women and Men in the World Religions, Seventh Edition, [Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002] Mary Pat Fisher, Living Religions: A Brief Introduction, [Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2002] 50 Matthew Fox, One River, Many Wells, [New York, New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 2000] Lewis M. Hopfe and Mark R. Woodward, Religions of the World, Eighth Edition, [Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2001] Huston Smith, The Illustrated World’s Religion: A Guide to our Wisdom Traditions, [New York, New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1994] 51