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TIMELINE / 1810 to 1860 Date Country Theme 1810 - 1830 Tunisia Economy And Trade Situated at the confluence of the seas of the Mediterranean, Tunis is seen as a great commercial city that many of her neighbours fear. Food and luxury goods are in abundance and considerable fortunes are created through international trade and the trade-race at sea. 1810 - 1845 Tunisia Migrations Taking advantage of treaties known as Capitulations an increasing number of Europeans arrive to seek their fortune in the commerce and industry of the regency, in particular the Leghorn Jews, Italians and Maltese. 1810 - 1850 Tunisia Migrations Important increase in the arrival of black slaves. The slave market is supplied by seasonal caravans and the Fezzan from Ghadames and the sub-Saharan region in general. 1810 - 1850 Tunisia Rediscovering The Past Travellers and explorers of modern times have scoured and described the Regency of Tunis. Their missions to the region provided occasions to discover the remains of antiquity and open up new fields of research to European scholars. 1810 - 1822 Morocco Political Context In relation to trade policy, Mulay Sulayman opposes the liberalism of his father Muhammad Ibn ‘Abd Allah by passing an edict in 1814 imposing a 50 per cent duty on imports, and takes restrictive measures by banning the export of most Moroccan commodities to Europe, including grain, oil, wool, animal hides and livestock. The years of drought and swarms of locusts that devastated all crops between 1810 and 1816 caused a shortage of basic commodities, price increases and famine, on top of the plague epidemics that swept the country. All of these factors necessarily weakened the country financially and demographically. This could help to explain the inward-looking policies adopted by the sovereign Mulay Sulayman, who—according to some historical sources—claimed that he did not need Europe and hoped that Europe did not need him. A desperate and exhausted Mulay Sulayman resigned and chose his nephew Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Hisham as his successor. 1810 - 1830 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Fine And Applied Arts A masterpiece of Byzantine sculpture, the iconostasis in the Monastery of St John at Bigor near Debar is created in this period by Petre Filipovski Garkata (d. 1854) and his group of craftsmen. Carved in walnut, the iconostasis depicts scenes from the Old and New Testaments and varied floral motifs. This Macedonian master of woodcarving and his associates also executed the iconostases in Lesnovo Monastery. 1810 - 1862 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion One of the most prominent Macedonian poets, folklorists and educators, Dimitar Miladinov(1810–62) is born in Struga. He spends most of his life teaching in the Ohrid region. His greatest achievement is the collection of folk songs between 1854 and 1860. 1811 Austria Reforms And Social Changes A commission under the chairmanship of Franz von Zeiller drafts the General Civil Code. 1811 Egypt Political Context On 1 March, Muhammad ‘Ali invites some 470 Mamluk beys to the Citadel for a feast to celebrate his son’s imminent departure for Mecca. When the feasting is over the Mamluks mount their lavishly decorated horses and are led in procession down the narrow, high-sided defile, below what is now the Police Museum. As they approach Bab al-Azab, the great gates swing closed and gunfire rains down on them from above. After the fusillades, Muhammad ‘Ali’s soldiers wade in with swords and axes to finish the job. Legend relates that only one Mamluk escaped alive, leaping over the wall on his horse. 1812 Romania Political Context After the Russian–Ottoman war of 1806–12 Russia annexes the eastern part of Moldavia (Bessarabia). 1812 Spain Political Context Spain's first Constitution of 1812, influenced by the French Revolution, is revolutionary because it declares the Spanish American colonies to be provinces and all their inhabitants citizens. The constitution reduces some of the powers and privileges of the monarchy, aristocracy and church and will influence future post-independence South American constitutions. Up to 1876 Spain will change its constitution four times (1837, 1845, 1869, 1876). 1812 - 1817 Germany Travelling John Lewis Burckhardt from Switzerland journeyed to the “Orient”, especially to Aleppo in Syria, to study the Near East and Islam. While there, under the pseudonym Sheikh Ibrahim ibn ‘Abd-Allah and living as a Muslim businessman, he not only translated from English to Arabic Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, but also rediscovered the city of Petra (Jordan) in 1812. 1813 Romania Fine And Applied Arts Gheorghe Asachi teaches a class of drawing and history of art at the School for Surveying Engineers (Moldavia). 1813 Spain Political Context The Valençay Treaty ends the war between Spain and France. Return of King Fernando VII and absolutist restoration. 1813 - 1815 Germany Political Context The Liberation Wars (and the decisive Battle of Leipzig in 1913) were between Napoleon Bonaparte’s French troops and Central Europe; Napoleon is overthrown. 1814 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces The reign of Hammuda Pasha Bey, known as the “Founder” of modern Tunisia, comes to an end. 1814 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces Sharjah becomes the main seat of the ruling Sheikh, Sultan bin Saqr al-Qasimi I, and the centre of the government of the Sharjah Emirate. 1814 Greece Political Context Foundation of the secret organisation Filiki Etaireia (Friendly Society) prepares the ground for the Greek Revolution. 1814 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The first book in Macedonian, History of the Frightening and Second Communion of Jesus, written by Joakim Krchovski (c.1750–1820) is published in Budim. Krchovski was a herald of the Macedonian cultural revival and went on to publish more books on religious matters. In the early 19th century in Macedonia only priests and other Christian dignitaries were educated enough to enlighten Macedonian people through literature in their mother tongue. 1814 France Political Context Abdication of Napoleon I on 6 April sees the end of the First French Empire (1804–14). 1814 - 1815 France Political Context First Restoration: the return of the monarchy, referred to as the Bourbon Restoration. Louis XVIII (brother of Louis XVI) facilitated this by accepting a return to the monarchy by means of the Charter of 1814. This Charter combined the more moderate ideas of the Revolution with certain monarchist traditions. 1814 - 1815 Germany Political Context The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) saw the restoration of the political state (the 1792 Ancien Régime), realignment of the borders, and creation of a loosely arranged German Bund (Federation). 1814 - 1815 Germany Reforms And Social Changes The Wiener Kongress (Congress of Vienna) decides on territorial realignment and the constitutional restoration of Europe. 1814 - 1815 Austria Political Context The Great Peace Congress is held in Vienna from 18 September 1814 to 9 June 1815. Clemens Wenzel Duke of Metternich organises the Austrian predominance in Italy. Austria exchanges the Austrian Netherlands for the territory of the Venetian Republic and creates the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia. 1815 - 1816 Tunisia Political Context The English Admiral Edward Pellow, 1st Viscount Exmouth imposes on the regencies of Algiers, Tunis and Tripoli new recommendations to slow the race at sea. He inaugurates the so-called Gunboat diplomacy, which involves the threat of military force. 1815 - 1859 Italy Economy And Trade Italy is an agricultural country. Political fragmentation is an obstacle to trade and economic development. The different states use not only different currencies, but also different systems of measurement. 1815 - 1816 Italy Rediscovering The Past Antonio Canova, acting on behalf of Pope Pio VII, recovers from France several pieces of art belonging to the Papal States, which had been brought to Paris by Napoleon, including the Villa Borghese’s archaeological collection. 1815 Italy Political Context The Congress of Vienna decides the restoration of pre-Napoleonic monarchies: Kingdom of Sardinia (Piedmont, Genoa, Sardinia); Kingdom of Two Sicilies (Southern Italy and Sicily), the Papal States (part of Central Italy), Grand Duchy of Tuscany and other smaller states. Much of northern Italy (Milan, Venice, Trieste etc.) is under the Austrian empire. 1815 - 1860 Italy Political Context Italian “Risorgimento” (movement for national unification). 1815 Serbia Political Context The Second Serbian Uprising – the Takovo Uprising – represents the second stage of the Serbian revolt against the Ottoman Empire, which breaks out soon after. The revolt leads to recognition of Serbian autonomy within the Ottoman Empire and establishment of the Kneževina (Principality) of Serbia, which obtained its own Assembly, Constitution and ruling dynasty. 1815 France Political Context March–July, the Cent Jours (Hundred Days) between which Napoleon I returns to power and then finally abdicates after defeat at Waterloo. 1815 - 1830 France Political Context Second Restoration: the reign of Louis XVIII and his brother Charles X. France experiences an economic boom (i.e. the development of the railways), but discontent grows over the king’s authoritarian policies. 1815 - 1848 France Economy And Trade The development of transport networks: the creation of railway lines from 1832, expansion of the road network and construction of a large number of canals. 1815 - 1848 France Economy And Trade The pace of industrialisation picks up significantly: millions of tons of coal and iron are produced and production in the textile industry is enhanced by the Jacquard loom. 1815 - 1848 Germany Fine And Applied Arts The painting by Carl Spitzweg, Der Sonntagsspaziergang (The Sunday Walk, 1841), exemplifies the Biedermeier era (an expression of the popular present reality) in art at this time. Incidentally, Spitzweg’s painting Der arme Poet (The Poor Poet) was the most popular painting in Germany in the 19th century. 1815 - 1848 Germany Migrations An estimated 60,000 German citizens leave the territory that later becomes the German Bund (Federation). 1815 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The Biedermeier era in literature (i.e. works by Mörike and von Droste-Hülshoff) is characterised by melancholia, a desire to escape to an idyll and to recapture religion and the homeland. 1815 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Mahmud II leaves Topkapı Palace to live in Beşiktaş Palace. 1816 Tunisia Travelling Queen Caroline of Brunswick visits the Regency of Tunis as a guest of the Bey. She is hosted at the Palais de la Rose in Manouba. 1816 France Reforms And Social Changes The stethoscope is invented by Dr René Laennec. 1816 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Gioachino Rossini (1795–1868), the young director of the San Carlo Theatre of Naples, the most important opera house at the time, puts on stage in Rome the Barber of Seville. The opera, thanks to its easy and passionate pacing, sets a new benchmark for the light operatic style, namely, the opera buffa (comic opera). 1816 Italy Rediscovering The Past In Naples, inauguration of the Royal Bourbon Museum, whose holdings include the rich collection of archaeological items belonged to Elisabetta Farnese and the pieces excavated in Pompei during the 18th century. All such holdings are personal properties of the king. 1816 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes Modern education in Egypt starts with the School of Engineering, which is established by Muhammad ‘Ali in the Castle during 1816, to train and prepare specialists in that area. 1816 Egypt Political Context Ibrahim Pasha leads Egypt’s expedition to Hijaz and crushes the Wahhabi Revolution. 1816 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The book titled Mirror by Kiril Pejchinovic (1771–1845) is published in Budim. This great Macedonian educator was born in Tearce near Tetovo. The first books in Macedonian published in the early 19th century were on religious subjects, which was understandable given that they were written by people of the Church. 1816 - 1830 France Economy And Trade The rise of the Stock Exchange in Paris, the financial capital of Europe. 1816 - 1830 Germany Fine And Applied Arts Architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel engraved a certain style on Berlin, starting with the Neue Wache (New Guardhouse, 1816–18) and followed by the Konzerthaus at Berlin’s Gandarmenmarkt (1818– 21). Opposite the Lustgarten (Pleasure gardens) on what is now known as Museum Island in Berlin, Schinkel built the first royal museum, the Altes Museum (opened 1830), marking the beginning of the Island’s history. 1817 Romania Travelling August–September: Habsburg Emperor Francis I and his wife Carolina visit the cities of Transylvania and are very well received by the population. 1817 Spain Reforms And Social Changes Slave trade (trata de negros) abolished by the Spanish Parliament at Cádiz. Following the influence of the French Revolution the anti-slavery movement grew in Europe. In 1837 slavery was abolished in Spain but not in the colonies. The government later freed the slaves of Puerto Rico (1873) and Cuba (1878). 1817 - 1821 Portugal Political Context The emergence of liberal ideas. In Porto a Provisional Ruling Council is created (1820) and pursues the rebellion against British rule that started in Lisbon. Liberal revolution breaks out in Porto (August 1820), spreads to Lisbon, beginning the radical cycle known as Vintismo. King João VI is forced to return to Portugal from Brazil in 1821. 1817 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Rise of the Wartburgfest, an assembly of radical students who want to implement the idea of a German National State. 1818 - 1819 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Construction of the first steamboats. The first steamboat lines in the Mediterranean: Naples shipyards build the steamboat Ferdinando I (for the line Naples–Genoa–Marseille); Genoa shipyards build the steamboat Eridano (to be used in the Adriatic Sea). 1818 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Arthur Schopenhauer publishes Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung (The World as Will and Representation is the title of the latest, 2008, English translation; the first was published in 1883).The second, expanded German edition appeared in 1944. 1819 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context The British put a stop to Qawasim hegemony in the Lower Gulf region by destroying their ports, strongholds, and fleets on both shores of the Arab Gulf. 1819 Spain Fine And Applied Arts Founding of the Museo Nacional del Prado with the Royal collection of paintings as one the first museums in Spain. 1819 France Fine And Applied Arts The Raft of the Medusa, by the Romantic painter Théodore Géricault. 1819 Germany Political Context The Karlsbader Beschlüsse (Carlsbad Decrees) was intended to suppress liberal and national movements through censorship of the press and political persecution. 1820 France Migrations The first German immigrants enter France. 1820 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces British Royal Navy surveyors visit Sharjah. 1820 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context The British impose a Peace Treaty on the Qawasim and other sheikhs of the Arab littoral of the Gulf. The signing is preceded by a preliminary agreement forcing the sheikhs to turn over all remaining vessels, fortifications and weapons in exchange for the restoration of their fishing and pearling vessels. The Treaty enjoins all signatories to fly a specific red-and-white flag. After 1820 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Economy And Trade Pearling becomes the major industry of the Qawasim and other sheikhdoms of the Arab littoral of the Gulf; exports provide the most important revenues. 1820s - 1850s Italy Economy And Trade Industrialisation begins at a slower pace compared with other Western European countries. It concentrates in Northern Italy (Piedmont, Lombardy) and in the Kingdom of Two Sicilies. Silk production is the strongest industrial sector. 1820 Italy Rediscovering The Past Edict by Cardinal Bartolomeo Pacca (1756–1844) dictating a comprehensive set of measures for the protection of cultural heritage in the Papal States: it is the first comprehensive law on the protection of cultural heritage issued in Italy and it will become a model for the other Italian states. 1820 - 1831 Italy Political Context In 1820–21 and 1830–31, uprisings in different parts of Italy in favour of national unification and constitutional rule. They meet harsh repression. 1820s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion British interest in classical Arabic culture including literature sometimes originates in India where the first printed Arabic version of One Thousand and One Nights is published. 1820 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes Muhammad ‘Ali sends the first educational “mission” of Egyptian students to Europe. 1820 - 1823 Spain Political Context In 1820, the army mutiny led by Rafael del Riego leads to King Fernando VII accepting the Constitution, in spite of his former opposition to constitutional monarchy, bringing in the Trienio Liberal period of popular rule. The Congress of Verona in 1822 gives France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute monarch. In 1823 the French army invades Spain to restore absolutism, ending the Trienio Liberal. 1820 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 14 October: The steamship Conde de Palmela arrives on the Tagus River. Built in Liverpool by Mottershead and Hays, it was commissioned by the Portuguese consul there. It is said to be the first ship to cross the Biscay, a journey of 1,000 miles, and the first steamship to be seen in Portugal. 1820 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Les Méditations Poétiques by the Romantic poet Alphonse de Lamartine. 1820 - 1825 Germany Rediscovering The Past The German naturalists and explorers Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich and Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg embark on a research tour in cooperation with Martin Lichtenstein (who published Reisen im südlichen Afrika (Tourism in Southern Africa) in 1810 and was appointed director of the Berlin Zoological Museum in 1813) from Cairo to Derna in Libya, along the Nile, and through the Sinai Desert and Lebanon, collecting natural and historical specimens. 1821 - 1822 Romania Political Context January 1821–July 1822: revolution in Moldavia and Wallachia against the Phanariotes (Greek rulers imposed by the Ottoman Empire since the beginning of the 18th century) and for social and economic measures to improve the lives of the people. After the suppression of the revolution the Empire appoints Romanian rulers in Moldavia (Ioniţă Sandu Sturdza) and Walachia (Grigore Dimitrie Ghica). 1821 Austria Economy And Trade In Trieste, Josef Ressel equips the steamship Civetta with a ship’s propeller for the first time. 1821 - 1822 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces Giuseppe Valadier’s neoclassical project for the area next to the Rome northern gate is completed: it encompasses Piazza del Popolo and a new scenographic access to the Pincio hill. 1821 - 1822 Italy Fine And Applied Arts Francesco Hayez paints I Vespri Siciliani, a historical painting expressing the new revolutionary and independence ideas that are taking root in Italy. 1821 - 1859 Italy Migrations Harsh repression of pro-national unification and pro-constitution movement forces many activists – including Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi – to flee abroad. 1821 Greece The Greek Revolution against the Ottoman Empire begins. Political Context 1821 - 1825 Lebanon Political Context Bashir Shihab II, who was elected as amir in 1788 under Ottoman suzerainty, is overthrown when he backs Acre, and flees to Egypt, later to return and form an army. Bashir Jumblatt, the Druze leader, gathers the Druze factions and declares a rebellion that leads to massacres and battles with the Maronites who support Bashir Shihab. 1822 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces A survey of Sharjah records it as having fortified towers and walls, a large mosque, as well as singleand two-storey houses. 1822 Italy Rediscovering The Past Inauguration of the Vatican Museums’ Braccio Nuovo (new wing), which completes the Chiaramonti Museum, whose construction had started in 1807, under the impulse of Pope Pius VII (Barnaba Chiaramonti). The Museum’s collection was set up by the sculptor Antonio Canova and included a large body of archaeological items. 1822 Italy Travelling The Grand Duchy of Tuscany issues the first official ruling in Italy regarding “those who bathe in the sea in the open air”. Around that time, in Viareggio two wooden bathing establishments are built (one for men, the other for women). They are intended for seawater therapy. 1822 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past Champollion deciphers Egyptian hieroglyphs, giving voice to the wealth of ancient inscriptions. This heralds the beginning of Egyptology. 1822 - 1859 Morocco Political Context At the beginning of his reign, Mulay Sulayman adopts a policy to isolate the country, excluding contact with the European and even Turkish worlds. He leant on the national brotherhoods and maintained mediaeval, feudal ways of life that eschewed Western technical innovations which he deemed to be dangerous. He nonetheless signed agreements with Portugal in 1823, England in 1824 and France in 1825, under pressure to change his position on account of the international situation. During the first third of the 19th century, Morocco was subject to systematic pressure from rapidly expanding European imperialism. 1822 Portugal Political Context King João VI asks his heir Prince Pedro, Duke of Braganza (1798–1834) to remain in Brazil. Part of the court decides to stay there. Facing revolt against the anti-Brazilian policy of Portugal, Pedro proclaims the independence of Brazil on 7 September (Grito do Ipiranga). In October he is acclaimed as the first Brazilian Emperor, Pedro I. 1822 Portugal Political Context 1 October: Inspired by Cadiz Constitution members of Parliament authored the first liberal Constitution. King João VI (1767-1826) promulgated the document on 1 October 1822, in Lisbon. Royal prerogatives and the nobles and clergy privileges were limited, though with a weak impact. 1822 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes 1 October: Unavoidable recognition by King João VI of the first liberal Constitution approved by Parliament on 23 September. Inspired by the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and the French ones of 1791, 1793 and 1795, royal prerogatives and the privileges of nobles and clergy are to be limited, though this has only weak impact. 1822 France Rediscovering The Past The scholar, philologist and Orientalist Jean-François Champollion (1790–1832) deciphers the Rosetta Stone hieroglyphs. 1822 - 1829 Germany Political Context The War between Greece and the Ottoman Empire concludes with Greece attaining its independence with the help of Russia and the Western nations. 1823 - 1825 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context After the defeat of the Qawasim by the British, a British Residency is established at Bushire on the Persian littoral to represent Britain’s political, economic and military interests there. Shortly after, a “Native Agent” is based in Sharjah as his representative. Native agents were generally non-Arab but Arabic-speaking Muslims from the Indian subcontinent or the Persian littoral of the Gulf, chosen for their loyalty to Britain and their in-depth local and regional knowledge. Their task was to monitor activities on the Trucial Coast and liaise with local powers on Britain’s behalf. 1823 Spain Reforms And Social Changes The French army, known as “Los cien mil hijos de San Luis” (“the hundred thousand sons of St. Louis”), invades Spain to restore absolutism ending the Trienio Liberal (1820 –1823). In 1820 King Fernando VII had agreed to the Constitution, in spite of his opposition to a constitutional monarchy. The Congress of Verona in 1822 gave France a mandate to restore Fernando as absolute monarch. 1823 Turkey Political Context 28 July: Treaty of Erzurum, which ends the Ottoman–Iranian war and restores the previous border. 1824 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces During the reign of Prince Grigore IV Ghica, the major streets in Bucharest, which used to be covered with wooden planks, are covered with cobblestones. 1824 Italy Rediscovering The Past In Turin, inauguration of the Royal Museum of Egyptian Antiquities. The Museum holding includes 5,268 Egyptian items brought to Italy by Bernardino Drovetti and bought by the King of Sardinia, Charles Felix of Savoy. 1824 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Fine And Applied Arts Petre Filipovski Garkata and fellow artisans, including the master carver Makarie Frchkovski, create the iconostasis in the Church of Holy Salvation, Skopje. Petre Filipovski developed his own recognisable style of wood carving depicting scenes from the Old and New Testaments in which biblical figures were rendered wearing traditional costumes of Macedonia. The iconostasis also depicts the artists who created it as their “signature”. 1824 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Publication of O Alfageme de Santarém, a drama by Almeida Garret (1799–1854). The subject is the dynastic crisis of 1383–85 when the Portuguese kingdom was invaded by Juan I of Castille, married to the heir to the Portuguese throne, Princess Beatriz. In 1385, acclaimed King João I of Avis with Lady Philippa of Lancaster created the dynasty of Avis, responsible for the era of the Discoveries. 1824 France Fine And Applied Arts The Massacre at Chios by the Romantic painter Eugène Delacroix. 1824 France Fine And Applied Arts The Pardon of Bonchamps by David d'Angers. 1824 - 1829 Germany Cities And Urban Spaces Rosenstein Palace is built by Giovanni Salucci under Wilhelm I; it has been a public museum since 1954. 1825 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The first proper British survey of the southern and western waters of the Gulf begins at Ras Musandam. 1825 - 1827 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century A railway line opens between Budweis (Bohemia) and Linz (Upper Austria). The rolling stock was not yet steam-operated. 1825 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Johann Strauss creates his Wiener Walzer Kapelle, an orchestra specialising in the Viennese Waltz. 1825 - 1827 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Alessandro Manzoni (1785–1873) publishes I promessi sposi (The Betrothed), one of the most widely read Italian novels. His use of the Italian language stands out as a model. 1825 Italy Travelling More than half a million pilgrims visit Rome on the occasion of the Catholic “Holy Year”. In the Roman Catholic tradition, a Holy Year or Jubilee is a year of forgiveness of sins and reconciliation. Other Holy Years were celebrated in 1875 and in 1900. Rome always attracted Catholic pilgrims, especially during Holy Years. 1825 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The poets Alexandros and Panayotis Soutsos compile their first works, and introduce European Romanticism to a newly liberated Greece. 1825 Lebanon Political Context Bashir Shihab II, helped by the Ottomans and by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar (governor of Acre), defeats his rival in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt dies in Acre at the order of al-Jazzar. Bashir II represses the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut. This makes Bashir II the only leader of Mount Lebanon. 1825 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Almeida Garrett writes the poems Camões (1825) and Dona Branca (1826), considered the first romantic works in Portuguese. The hero, Camões, is presented as an outcast who, returning to the motherland, dies in the year when Portugal loses its independence (1580). The fantasy of medieval wizardry traditions is represented in Dona Branca. Circa 1825 France Fine And Applied Arts The inventor Nicéphore Niépce is credited with the creation of the first “photograph”. 1825 - 1848 Germany Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion This era, one marked by the politician and statesman Klemens von Metternich, a supporter of restoration politics and conditions prior to the French Revolution, is satirised by the Junges Deutschland, a movement in literature (i.e. the works of Büchner, Heine and Grabbe) that is characterised by a rejection of these beliefs in support of a free press and freedom of expression. 1826 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The invention of photography by Nicéphore Niépce. 1826 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces Sharjah is recorded as having 175 stone buildings and 2,000 areesh (palm-frond) houses. 1826 - 1832 Portugal Political Context With the death of his father, Emperor Pedro I of Brazil becomes Pedro IV of Portugal but gives up the throne to his daughter, future Queen Maria II. The proclamation of a moderate Constitutional Charter does not stop the absolutist movement led by his brother, Prince Miguel (1802–66), who disregards the rights of his niece Princess Maria and Pedro’s decision. 1826 Turkey Political Context 15–17 June: The abolition and extermination of the Janissary corps (the so-called Auspicious Incident) in İstanbul by troops loyal to Sultan Mahmud II. This act provides the conditions for institutional modernisation. 1827 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Franz Schubert composes his Winterreise. 1827 Greece Political Context The London Treaty: England, Russia and France suggest to the Ottoman Sultan that he should recognise Greek independence. This is the first step towards foundation of the Greek State. 1827 Egypt Migrations The French physician Antoine Barthelemy Clot, Clot Bey as he was known in Egypt, becomes the first director of the Medical School and Hospital in Egypt. 1827 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes A School of Medicine is established at Abu Za‘bal and annexed to the Military Hospital there due to the efforts of Clot Bek, a French physician. A fatwa is then issued by Sheikh Hasan al-Attar, which allowed anatomizing cadavers as long as it was done in order to prevent disease. 1827 - 1831 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes A School of Veterinary Medicine emerges in Rashid in 1827, which then transfers to a building beside the School of Medicine at Abu Za‘bal in 1831. Here the veterinary hospital is able to accommodate up to 110 horses and includes a Pharmacy, a Hall of Anatomy and areas for student and staff subsistence. 1827 Egypt Political Context When under the command of an Ottoman representative the entire Egyptian navy is sunk by the European Allied fleet, Muhammad ‘Ali asks for the territory of Syria in compensation. 1827 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century First steamboat in the Ottoman Empire is launched. 1827 Turkey Political Context 20 October: A joint British, French and Russian fleet destroys the Ottoman and Egyptian navy at Navarino as the Sublime Porte did not accept the declaration of the UK, France and Russia for an autonomous Greece (in the Protocol of London, 6 July 1827). 1828 - 1829 Italy Rediscovering The Past The Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopold II and Charles X of France finance the archaeological expedition to Egypt headed by Ippolito Rossellini and Jean-Francois Champollion. 1828 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The First Governor of the new Greek nation, Ioannis Kapodistrias, orders the foundation of the postal service. 1828 Greece Rediscovering The Past Ioannis Kapodistrias oversees the establishment of Greece’s first museum, the Archaeological Museum of Aegina. 1828 Greece Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The poem Hymn to Liberty by Dionysios Solomos becomes the Greek National Anthem with music composed by Nikolaos Mantzaros. 1828 - 1848 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces The Mosque of Muhammad ‘Ali is built between 1828 and 1848. Perched on the summit of the Citadel, the Ottoman mosque with its animated silhouette and twin minarets, the largest to be built in the first half of the 19th century, is the most visible mosque in Cairo. 1829 Romania Political Context The peace Treaty of Edirne institutes the Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia, which lasts until 1856. The Romanian countries remain under Russian occupation until 1834. Under the supervision of the Russian authorities in 1830–31 the Organic Regulations, considered to be the first Romanian constitutions, are drawn up and adopted. 1829 Romania Economy And Trade 14 September: the Treaty of Edirne annuls the Ottoman monopoly on Wallachia and Moldavia’s commerce. 1829 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The Austrian Danube Steamboat Shipping Company is established. 1829 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Gioachino Rossini puts on stage in Paris his last opera, Guillaume Tell, featuring the fight of the Swiss people for freedom from Habsburg domination. He wrote 39 operas, characterised by a style aiming at pure musical beauty (bel canto). Great attention is paid to the sound of the voice and to technical virtuosity, with little emphasis on the different dramatic situations and to the personality of the different characters. 1829 United Kingdom Economy And Trade The Treaty of Adrianople, following a Russian-Turkish war, opens up the Black Sea to international trade. Trebizond becomes a major port for Persia and India. Constantinople, Smyrna (Izmir) and Aleppo, which have been major international trading communities for many centuries now, flourish with the expansion of steam power. 1829 United Kingdom Political Context The poet Lord Byron epitomises Romantic support for Greek independence from the Ottoman Empire. Over the next century, British opinion wavers between seeing the Ottoman Empire as a force for stability or one oppressing Christian populations – the Armenians and Balkan Christians. 1829 Egypt Migrations Al-Waqa'i`a al-Masriya is established by order of Khedive Muhammad ‘Ali. It is the first indigenous Middle Eastern newspaper, initially written in both Ottoman Turkish and Arabic. 1829 Spain Economy And Trade The Banco Español de San Fernando absorbs the highly indebted Banco Nacional de San Carlos, founded in 1782, thus becoming in fact the first Spanish bank. The bank continues as such until 1856, when it becomes Banco de España, the central Bank of Spain. 1829 United Kingdom Political Context Irish lawyer Daniel O’Connell leads the campaign for concession of Catholic Emancipation, which will allow Roman Catholics to sit in the UK Parliament. The campaign is successful, helped along by the death of George III, but O’Connell’s long-term goal is to repeal Ireland’s Act of Union with Great Britain. 1829 France Fine And Applied Arts École Centrale des Arts et Manufactures, Paris. 1829 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 3 March: Clothing regulation: the Ottoman state mandates the fez as the common headgear for all Ottoman men. 1829 Turkey Political Context 14 September: Treaty of Adrianople (present-day Edirne). This treaty secures Greek independence and strengthens the autonomy of Wallachia, Moldavia (Romania), and Serbia. 1830 Tunisia Political Context With the capture of Algiers, France ousts the Ottoman Empire and asserts its claim to the western Mediterranean. The beys and the regency’s elite then become aware of the dangers posed by the Europeans. 1830 Romania Migrations The beginning of Greek immigration into Brăila. Many Greeks emigrate to Wallachia and settle in the Romanian ports on the Danube after the liberalisation of commerce on the Danube and Black Sea (1828). 1830 France Migrations Polish intellectuals arrive in Paris, which becomes the capital of exiled Poland. 1830 France Travelling From 1830, among artists and intellectuals of the 19th century the journey to the ‘Orient’ to discover ancient civilisations becomes a kind of ritual. 1830 - 1840 Jordan Political Context Bilad al-Sham (Greater Syria, including Jordan) is under Ibrahim Pasha who is ruling on behalf of his father, Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt. Ibrahim Pasha is forced to retreat to Egypt through Transjordan where the Egyptian army suffers severe casualties on its way back to Egypt. 1830s Greece Cities And Urban Spaces Eduard Schaubert and Stamatios Kleanthis pioneer the urban redevelopment of Athens, initially under Ioannis Kapodistrias. They produce topographical plans of Athens and, in doing so, lay the foundations for the new capital. 1830s United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The development of steam power in the early 19th century also applies to marine transport. Steamships shorten distances, but they also require fuelling stations. In 1839, Britain acquires Aden as one fuelling station on the route to India. Before construction of the Suez Canal, travellers sailed to Alexandria and continued overland to Suez, picking up a steamer there. 1830s United Kingdom Migrations With the new Kingdom of Greece, guaranteed by Britain, some Greeks migrate to Athens and the new state, while others migrate from Greece to Constantinople, which has a huge Greek community. Relations between Turks and Greeks suffer during the 19th century, leading to a slow cantonisation of the region, culminating with the exchange of populations (Greeks from Turkey to Greece and Turks from Greece to Turkey) after World War I. From the same period, expansion of the old Hellenic port of Alexandria witnesses a mass migration of Greeks, mostly from the Aegean islands to the city, making them, by the end of the century, the wealthiest and most influential community in Alexandria. 1830 - 1844 Morocco Political Context The French expedition to Algeria arouses strong emotions in Morocco. It was understood to be a direct threat, in particular following incursions by French troops into eastern Morocco. Mulay ‘Abd alRahman accepted the call of the people of Tlemcen and gave his support to the religious and military leader ‘Abd al-Qadir. 1830 Spain Fine And Applied Arts From the 1830s onwards the Moorish or Alhambresque style is popular in Europe, especially in Spain, but also in England, Austria, Russia, Germany and the USA. This style is found not only in applied arts but also in architecture and interior decoration including the well-known “Moorish” smoking or retiring rooms. 1830 Spain Migrations From 1830 onwards many Spaniards emigrate to North Africa (Morocco and Algeria), coinciding with the French occupation of Algiers and as a consequence of the economic crises in Spain. The emigrants are mostly from the Mediterranean regions such as Alicante, Almería and the Balearic Islands. 1830 Spain Reforms And Social Changes Fernando VII has no sons, only daughters, so abolishes under Pragmática Sanción, the Salic Law, introduced by the Spanish branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which forbids women to reign. After the death of Fernando VII in 1833, his eldest daughter becomes Queen of Spain as Isabel II. 1830 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Battle of Hernani, a drama by Victor Hugo. 1830 France Political Context June–July: the invasion of Algiers. 1830 France Political Context 27–29 July: the Second French Revolution of July 1830 results in the fall of Charles X, who is succeeded by his cousin Louis-Philippe. 1830 France Political Context The July Monarchy: Louis-Philippe becomes “Citizen-King”, and economic growth is joined by increased poverty. 1830 - 1847 Germany Political Context Stimulated by the French July Revolution, the Vormärz (pre-March) Revolution refers to the formation of political programmes and factional movements. 1830 - 1840 Germany Economy And Trade Industrialisation and the Industrial Revolution. 1830 Germany Reforms And Social Changes The French July Revolution strengthens the power of the Besitzbürgertum (the landed gentry). Revolutions in central and north Germany enforce constitutional state reforms. 1831 France Rediscovering The Past The Chair in Egyptology at the Collège de France is created by a decree made by King Louis-Philippe of France on 12 March. 1831 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Cities And Urban Spaces The population of Sharjah rises to 13,900 inhabitants, its urban features are now much more substantial in terms of its domestic, commercial and official architecture. 1831 - 1835 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Once Rossini has left the stage, his place is taken by Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848) and Vincenzo Bellini (1801–1835). They introduce the new romantic spirit into melodrama and establish a tighter link between words and music. Their style is characterised by greater attention to the psychology of the different characters. 1831 Italy Political Context Giuseppe Mazzini founds the republican movement for national unification, Giovine Italia (Young Italy). 1831 Greece Political Context The First Governor of Greece, Conte Ioannis Kapodistrias, is assassinated. 1831 Spain Economy And Trade Foundation of the Madrid stock exchange (Bolsa de Madrid), driven by the state's need to raise funds to cover, among other things, debts arising from the Carlist wars. 1831 Lebanon Political Context Bashir II breaks away from the Ottoman Empire, allies with Muhammad ‘Ali Pasha of Egypt and assists his son Ibrahim Pasha in a siege of Acre. This siege lasts seven months before the fall of the city on 27 May 1832. They also conquer Damascus on 14 June 1832. 1831 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion George Sand (Amantine Aurore Dupin) writes Indiana, a novel about a woman’s emotional journey. 1831 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion 11 November: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish, Takvim-I Vekayi, published by the state. 1832 Romania Fine And Applied Arts Gheorghe Asachi founds in Iaşi a lithographic printing press called Institutul Albinei (The Bee Institute). 1832 France Travelling Like many artists, the painter Eugène Delacroix travelled to North Africa, Morocco and Algeria, returning with many paintings and sources for inspiration. 1832 Spain Economy And Trade Mechanisation of the textile industry in Catalonia with the introduction of steam-powered machines. Progress in the textile industry continues in Catalonia until the 1920 crisis. 1832 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Publication of Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra, a collection of essays, verbal sketches and stories that Irving began to write while he was staying in the Alhambra in Granada. The book is influenced by Romanticism and includes Spanish legends and traditions. 1832 - 1834 Portugal Political Context Civil war. Pedro returns to Portugal as Regent to defend his daughter’s rights. He launches military operations from Azores and Porto against the absolutist faction of Prince Miguel favored by the Quadruple Alliance. After the Miguelists’ defeat, peace terms depend on the Évora-Monte Convention and Prince Miguel’s exile. 1832 Portugal Economy And Trade Statesman and jurist José Mouzinho da Silveira (1780–1851) abolishes old taxes over real estate income, privileges and immunities detrimental to the kingdom’s economy. He creates the Tribunal do Tesouro Público for tax collection and Treasury administration. He defines the powers of the Minister of Finance and regulates Customs administration, among other reforms. 1832 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion La Sylphide is a Romantic ballet by Fillippo Taglioni in which his daughter, Marie, danced en pointe in the title role. 1832 Germany Political Context From 27 to 30 May an apparently non-political country fair, the “Hambacher Fest”, was held by a German national democratic assembly, demanding freedom, national entity and popular sovereignty. 1832 Germany Reforms And Social Changes The “Hambacher Fest” demonstrates the liberal, democratic and national opposition in Germany. 1833 Romania Cities And Urban Spaces Copou, one of the first public gardens in Romania, is laid out in Iaşi, Moldavia, at the initiative of Prince Mihail Sturdza. 1833 Spain Political Context Isabel II becomes Queen of Spain. The Salic Law forbidding women to reign had been abolished in 1830 because Fernando VII's only heirs were female. His brother, Carlos de Borbón, asserts his claim to the throne against his niece (first Carlist War, 1836–39); two further Carlist wars will follow (1846–49, 1872–76). 1833 - 1835 Portugal Economy And Trade 18 September: The first Commercial Code by jurist José Ferreira Borges grants free trade and distribution of goods, abolishing monopolies, privileges and real estate transfer taxes. Article 2 defines a commercial act and the nature of intervening actors. 1833 Portugal Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The death of Luísa Todi (b. 1753), the most celebrated mezzo-soprano opera singer in Portugal. Luísa began her musical career when she was 14 years old. She performed in major European cities and was invited to perform in the courts of Catherine of Russia and Frederick William of Prussia. 1833 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century First communication by telegram. 1833 Turkey Political Context 8 April: Treaty of Kütahya with Egypt. The Ottomans recognise Syria, Palestine and Lebanon as within the sphere of the Egyptian control. 1833 Turkey Political Context 8 July: Defensive Treaty of Hünkar İskelesi with Russia establishes Russian naval superiority in the Black Sea. 1834 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces Athens becomes the capital of the newly established state. 1834 Greece Cities And Urban Spaces In October, King Otto issues a decree for reconstruction of the city of Sparta. Over the ancient city Bavarian city-planners, headed by Fr. Staufert, design a city for 100,000 inhabitants based on the Ippodamia system, with wide roads and many squares. 1834 Greece Rediscovering The Past The Numismatic Museum is established. In 1843, it is amalgamated with the National Library and housed in a room at the University of Athens. 1834 United Kingdom Travelling A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the best known of the many travel books to the East. William M. Thackeray, Benjamin Disraeli and Anthony Trollope all travel to the Near East, others wander around Asia Minor and the Levant recording their impressions, often in search of classical inscriptions. 1834 United Kingdom Political Context The development of steam power brings increased trade and travel to the eastern Mediterranean. This leads to the publication of travel literature and an interest in the archaeology of the Bible. A. W. Kinglake’s Eothen is the most widely read of the travel books. 1834 Serbia Political Context In Vienna in 1813 Dimitrije Davidović, politician, diplomat, author of the Candlemas Constitution and one of the founders of journalism in Serbia, launches Novine Serbske, Serbia’s first daily newspaper. The newspapers are printed in Serbia for the first time in 1834. 1834 Egypt Economy And Trade A Khedival Decree promulgates the issue of an Egyptian currency consisting of a bi-metallic base of gold and silver. The Egyptian pound, known as the geneih is introduced, which replaces the Egyptian piastre (ersh) as the main unit of currency. 1834 Spain Fine And Applied Arts During his Grand Tour, after visiting Italy, Greece and Egypt, Owen Jones visits Granada and the Alhambra. His six month stay in the Alhambra is very important in the development of his ideas about polychromy and design. 1834 Spain Political Context Estatuto Real signed by the Queen Regent, María Cristina de Borbón, as a royal charter similar to the one under the French King Louis XVIII. There is no constitution, but it has two chambers (similar to the British House of Lords and House of Commons) and a government, with a president and ministers. 1834 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The birth in Ohrid of Kuzman Shapkarev (1834–1909), eminent Macedonian folklorist, ethnographer, educator and author of textbooks. Owing to his collecting activities a great deal of Macedonian intangible heritage was spared from oblivion. He was a teacher in Ohrid, Bitola, Prilep and Kukush. Later he worked and lived in Sofia. Although his collections of oral folk literature were published as Bulgarian, most of his works originated from Macedonia. 1834 - 1836 Portugal Political Context Queen Maria II (1819–53) regains the crown after her father’s death and the liberals’ victory. The Queen has to cope with the transition from absolutism to constitutionalism and disputes between opposing factions, conservatives on one side (Cartismo supporters of the 1826 Charter) and radicals on the other (Vintismo defenders of the Constitution of 1822). 1834 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes May: Religious orders are abolished and expropriated by decree; some of the assets of the crown, the Queen’s household and the absolutist aristocracy are nationalised. Monasteries are closed immediately and their buildings adapted, but women's convents remain open until the departure or death of the last nun. 1834 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Standardisation of the Abitur (equivalent to the A-Level system used elsewhere) which allows students to enter German universities. 1834 Germany Travelling The Sanssouci Palace in Potsdam is connected to Berlin by rail, one of the first electrified railway sections in Old Germany. Since 1911, the Palace has been used as a film location (i.e. The Blue Angel, 1930). 1835 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context The British impose a Treaty to prohibit maritime warfare among the Arab littoral sheikhdoms during the pearling season from May to November with Britain as enforcer of the peace. The British now term the lands of the signatory sheikhdoms as “The Trucial Coast” or “Trucial Oman”. The Treaty is renewed regularly until 1853, when a Perpetual Treaty is put into place. 1835 - 1837 Italy Reforms And Social Changes For the first time, a cholera epidemic hits Italy, killing more than 140,000 (26,000 in Palermo and 19,600 in Naples). Its causes remain unknown until the 1880s. Its spread is favoured by poor sanitation in urban centres. Cholera epidemics hit poor people especially and often occasion social unrest. 1835 Serbia Political Context The First Constitution of the Principality of Serbia (the Candlemas Constitution) is prompted by the autocratic rule of Miloš Obrenović, founder of the Obrenović Dynasty and Serbian Prince (1815–39; 1858–60). It is signed in 1835 in the city of Kragujevac, with the intention to limit the absolute power of Miloš, but under pressure from the Porte (Turkish Government), Austria and Russia the Constitution is abolished as early as the following year. 1835 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Opening of shipping routes between Alexandria and Marseille. 1835 Spain Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The premiere of Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino by the Duke of Rivas marks the beginnings of Spanish Romanticism in the theatre, especially tragedy, further developed in Don Juan Tenorio by José Zorrilla. All the Romantic plays have elements from poetry and novels and some have a historical background. 1835 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes The buildings and portable heritage collected from the confiscations are sold in public auction to an emergent new aristocracy and a newly empowered upper middle class and the proceeds used to fund part of the state deficit. 1835 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Le Père Goriot by Honoré de Balzac tells the tragic story of a father’s love for his two daughters. 1835 Turkey Political Context Reorganisation of the bureaucracy and introduction of a new system of rank. 1835 France Fine And Applied Arts Germany Cities And Urban Spaces The daguerreotype process. 1835 - 1838 The first section of railway is established between Nürnberg and Fürth (6 km); the building of the long-haul between Leipzig and Dresden is finished in 1838. 1835 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 1 July: The War Academy is founded. 1835 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Bureaucracy is reorganised and a new rank system is introduced. 1836 Lebanon Travelling The discovery of the Jeita Grotto, credited to Reverend William Thomson. Further expeditions reveal the depth and the importance of the cave. 1836 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Austrian Lloyd, the main steamship company on the Mediterranean, with headquarters in Trieste, is established. 1836 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century A stretch of the Northern Railway between Floridsdorf and Deutsch-Wagram comes into operation using steam-powered locomotives. 1836 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes Rifa’a al-Rafi’ al-Tahtawi founds the School of Languages to educate and train professional interpreters and translators. 1836 - 1845 Spain Fine And Applied Arts Publication of Owen Jones's Plan, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra (with an essay by Pascual de Gayangos on the history of the Nasrid Dynasty) in 12 volumes, using the new technique of chromolithography. 1836 Spain Political Context The Queen Regent, María Cristina, is forced to reinstate the 1812 Constitution after a military coup (pronunciamiento) in order to get support from the liberals in the First Carlist War. Under the Desamortización de Mendizábal Church properties are disentailed to fund the war. General Espartero takes over the Regency from the Queen in 1841. 1836 - 1842 Portugal Political Context Period of Setembrismo: lower-middle-class rebellion against corruption and upper-middle-class privileges. An industrialisation process takes off to counteract foreign dominance. To overcome the loss of Brazilian revenues the colonisation of African possessions is boosted. The slave trade is prohibited in 1836 by abolitionist Marquis of Sá da Bandeira. 1836 - 1842 Portugal Economy And Trade Under the framework of liberal Setembrismo, which seeks to fight against corruption and the privileges of the elite, an industrialisation process is promoted and protectionist customs taxes are adopted. One of the main reasons is to reduce the import of English products. The colonisation of African possessions is also developed. 1836 - 1842 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes Under Septembrismo the educational system is reformed by Passos Manuel (1801–62). To improve public education, the Plano Nacional dos Lyceus Nacionais equips each district capital with a lyceu (based on the French republican idea of lycée). The curriculum includes humanities and sciences and proposes an inductive and experimental learning process. 1836 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes The slave trade is prohibited in possessions south of the Equator by a law introduced by Marquis of Sá da Bandeira (1795–1876) for philanthropic and economic reasons. The loss of Brazil, and British pressure, persuades the rulers to endorse abolition to retain in Africa the African labour needed to develop the colonies there. In 1869, King Louis I (1838–89) decrees abolition. 1837 - 1855 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Ahmad Pasha Bey is known as the “Great Reformer” of modern Tunisia. Enlightened and openminded, he tries to modernise both State and Army. 1837 - 1840 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Foundation of the Polytechnic or military school of Bardo, responsible for the education of executives of the army and public administration. The School provides education in the art of military strategy, scientific disciplines, foreign languages, literature and religion. 1837 - 1854 Tunisia Political Context Rule of Ahmad Pasha Bey, known as the “Great Reformer” of modern Tunisia. His greatest achievements include modernisation of the army and the abolition of slavery. 1837 Romania Rediscovering The Past Two peasants find a Gothic hoard (4th–5th centuries AD) – the Pietroasa Treasure – near a village from Buzău county (Wallachia). Unfortunately, only 12 of the 22 golden pieces – jewellery and vases – were preserved. 1837 Romania Reforms And Social Changes Based on the Organic Regulations adopted in 1831, the National Assembly of Wallachia includes for the first time, apart from its traditional categories (the clergy and the aristocracy), representatives of the middle classes. 1837 France Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Inauguration of the first passenger railway line in France to and from Paris and Saint-Germain-enLaye. 1837 Lebanon Travelling The Galilee earthquake. In the 17th century, Fakhr-al-Din II took over Beaufort castle, but was defeated by the Ottomans who destroyed the upper portion. The earthquake causes further damage to the structure and the ruins become a quarry and a shelter for sheep. 1837 - 1840 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Naples and Turin are the first Italian towns to have gas street lightning. 1837 Greece Fine And Applied Arts Athens School of the Fine Arts is established with three departments: the School of Crafts, School of Industrial Crafts and the School of Fine Arts. 1837 Greece Rediscovering The Past The Archaeological Society of Athens is established. Its aim is to encourage archaeological-excavation management of antiquities in Greece. 1837 Greece Reforms And Social Changes The University of Athens opens. It is the first university to be established in the eastern Mediterranean. 1837 Egypt Reforms And Social Changes The year sees the founding of Egypt’s oldest commercial science study centre, when the School of Account is established during Muhammad ‘Ali’s Era. 1837 Spain Economy And Trade The feudal system had been abolished under the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 but not completely enacted until 1837. 1837 - 1844 Spain Economy And Trade First state confiscation and sale of Church properties known, after the minister who developed the law, as Desamortización de Mendizábal (Mendizábal's Disentailment) to fund the Carlist war. 1837 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces The first blueprints for a new Istanbul are prepared by Helmuth von Moltke, a general in the Ottoman army working for its modernisation, under direct orders from Mustafa Reşid Paşa. 1838 - 1847 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The financial success of the Stockton and Darlington Railway encourages large-scale investment in railways, leading to massive growth in the network. The many passengers are entertained on their journeys with inexpensive books, such as John Murray’s “Reading for the Rail” series. 1838 Serbia Political Context Founding of Belgrade University. 1838 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Auto de Gil Vicente written by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854). The plot revives the 16th-century court of King Manuel I where a play by Gil Vicente (founder of Portuguese modern theatre) is performed during the celebrations for the marriage of his daughter Princess Beatriz. 1838 Portugal Travelling Building of Pena Palace in Sintra, close to Lisbon, begins. This eclectic summer residence, commissioned by King Fernando II, combines Neo-Manueline, Neo-Islamic and Neo-Renaissance styles. The use of the Islamic decorative influences in a royal palace contributes to the Portuguese society’s acknowledgement of its Islamic past. 1838 Turkey Political Context Founding of the Ministry of Finance and formation of Sublime Council for Judicial Ordinances. The title “grand vizier” becomes “prime minister". 1838 Turkey Rediscovering The Past Sultan Mahmud II gave some parts of the bas reliefs of the temple of Assos to France and he also authorises French archaeologist Charles Texier (1802–71) to take away parts of the frieze from the temple of Artemis in Magnesia ad Meandrum. 1839 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century First Italian railway line (Napoli–Portici, 8 km). In the following years, other railway lines are inaugurated in other Italian states, e.g. Milano–Monza (1840), Pisa-Livorno (1844), Padova–Venezia (1846), Torino–Moncalieri (1848). Political fragmentation is an obstacle to the construction of long railway lines. 1839 United Kingdom Reforms And Social Changes The British Ambassador in Constantinople, Stratford Canning, has been credited with influencing the reforms in Turkey during the 19th century, in particular the decree of 1839, initiating a programme of liberal reform in the Ottoman Empire. Some of the changes are superficial, but nonetheless highly visible, such as the adoption of Western dress and titles. Other changes are seen in the culmination of social transformations within the Empire. 1839 United Kingdom Political Context British control of India is driven by trade. Steamships require fuelling stations. To this purpose Aden is occupied and controlled imperially from India for a century. Most British control of the Middle East is indirect and informal. Aden becomes a Crown Colony, with partial control of the Hinterland. 1839 Portugal Travelling Silva Porto, born in poverty in Portugal, trader, farmer and explorer, settles in Bié, Angola, from where he, with his pombeiros (long-distance trade agents), tours Central Africa between 1839 and 1890. The descriptions of his travels that he sent to Lisbon became legendary and a precious source of data. 1839 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces The Jesuits come to Beirut and build a modest school. 1839 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes February: A plan for the modernisation of general education is approved. 1839 Turkey Political Context 3 November: Mustafa Reşid Paşa declares the Imperial Rescript of Gülhane (the beginning of the Tanzimat reforms), granting basic rights to Ottoman subjects and declaring a policy of state reform. These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion”, the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil”, and the validity of non-Muslim testimony. 1840 - 1855 Tunisia Travelling Khayr al-Din, the reforming minister of Tunisia, conducts various missions in Europe and to the Sublime Porte (Sublime Gate), the honorific title used for Istanbul during the Ottoman Empire. 1840 Romania Economy And Trade Austrian engineers Karol and Rafael Hoffmann and Carol Maderspach initiate the extraction of coal in the Jiu Valley (south Transylvania), which was and still is the main coal-mining region of Romania. 1840 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Top hats begin to be worn in the United Principalities, where they were called joben, from the name of Jobin, the French merchant who first sold them in Bucharest. About 1860 France Migrations Massive rural exodus to Paris, in particular farmers from the Auvergne region. 1840 - 1841 Austria Political Context Austria cooperates in a settlement to the Turkish–Egyptian crisis of 1840, sending intervention forces to conquer the Ottoman fortresses of Saida (Sidon) and St Jean d’Acre, and concluding with the Dardanelles Treaty signed at the London Straits Convention of 1841. 1840s United Kingdom Migrations Aden becomes a British Crown Colony in 1839 administered (until 1937) not from London but from India. Indians migrating to practise trade and the professions help to duplicate what is happening in India, albeit in a smaller way, in the Gulf and Iraq. 1840s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Western classical music penetrates the courtly circles of the Ottoman Empire. The imperial Ottoman family includes composers, such as Sultan ‘Abd al-‘Aziz who composes dance music. On a visit to London in 1867, the band of the Grenadier Guards plays one of the Sultan’s own compositions at a reception for him. 1840 Lebanon Political Context Conflicts between the Druze and the Maronite Christians explode. A Maronite revolt against the feudal class erupts, lasting till 1858. 1840 Turkey Political Context After his term as governor in Samos, Kostaki Musurus Paşa, a Phanariot Greek becomes the first Ottoman envoy to independent Athens (1840–47) followed by Vienna (1848) and London (1851–55). 1840 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 23 October: The Ottoman Ministry of Post is established in Istanbul. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 7 February: The tax system is reorganised. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 12 October: The Ministry of Post is established. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Official recognition of the Mâli Takvim (Rumi calendar) as the second calendar system alongside the Hijra calendar. 1840 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes The first mixed courts are introduced to hear civil and criminal cases involving Muslims and nonMuslims. 1840 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion 3 July: The first newspaper in Ottoman Turkish published by a private individual, Cerîde-I Havâdis (Journal of News), begins to appear in İstanbul as a weekly, published by an English journalist, William Churchill. 1841 United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century William Henry Fox Talbot announces his calotype photography, which, using a developing agent, drastically reduces exposure time. A negative image is created, from which it is possible to produce countless positive images. Talbot is keen to apply the technique to archaeological objects, and photography is then used increasingly for recording objects and sites. 1841 France Reforms And Social Changes Law of 22 March 1841, inspired by the work of Louis-René Villermé: the Act prohibits the employment of children younger than eight years. It limits the working day to eight hours for ages 8– 12 and twelve hours for ages 12–16. Night work (9 p.m.–5 a.m.) is prohibited for anyone under 13 years; and for those who are older two hours is to be paid as three. 1841 Lebanon Economy And Trade Teams of spinners are brought from France to train young women. This was a real social revolution in this rural and traditional part of the country. According to G. Ducousso’s book The Silk Industry in Syria and Lebanon (1912), the French Consul in Beirut counted no fewer than 183 spinning mills in Lebanon. 1841 Greece Economy And Trade The National Bank of Greece is founded. 1841 United Kingdom Economy And Trade The Ottoman Bank is founded in this year, registered in London, to channel overseas investment in the Ottoman Empire. 1841 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The leading roles in Giselle, a ballet by Adolphe Adam are played by Carlotta Grisi and Lucien Petipa. 1841 - 1844 Germany Travelling The Berlin Zoological Gardens was established in 1841 and opened to the public in 1844. The oldest zoo in Germany, today, it hosts more visitors than any zoo in Europe (around 3 million visitors per year). 1841 Turkey Political Context 13 July: The Straits Convention, signed by the Ottoman Empire and the great powers, prohibits foreign warships from entering the Bosphorus or the Dardanelles. 1842 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Educational reform and restructuring of the Zaytuna Mosque through the introduction of new disciplines and incentives for teachers in Tunisia. 1842 Austria Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The Wiener Philharmoniker is founded. It becomes one of the most famous orchestras in the world. 1842 Austria Reforms And Social Changes Child labour under 12 years of age is outlawed in Austria. 1842 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Triumph of Nabuccodonosor by Giuseppe Verdi (1831–1901) at La Scala Theatre (Milan): it marks the appearance of a new operatic style, in which both voice and music show an entirely new heroic passion and strength. 1842 Italy Travelling A seaside hostel is opened in Viareggio (Tuscany) for the treatment of children affected by tuberculosis (the first of its kind in Italy). In Tuscany, experiments of “marine therapy” for children started in the 1820s. By 1882, 21 seaside hostels for medical purposes are active in Italy. 1842 United Kingdom Political Context Evangelists in Britain and Germany found the Jerusalem Protestant bishopric. There is an idea of converting Jews – the first bishop is a converted Jew – and the bishopric establishes a British cultural and educational interest in the Levant. It also stimulates archaeological work. 1842 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Fine And Applied Arts The portrait of Gjurchin Kokale, founder of the Church of St George in Lazaropole, is painted inside the church by Dicho Krstevic Zograph. It is one of the earliest known portraits in Macedonia. In 1854 this prolific artist painted the icon of Archpriest Samoil from the Treskavec Monastery near Prilep. 1842 - 1851 Portugal Political Context The period of Cabralismo, an authoritarian regime ruled by conservative Bernardo Costa Cabral who rehabilitates the 1826 Constitutional Charter but promoting the public infrastructures and fiscal code revision. Upper middle class and aristocracy regain state control and former privileges. Popular rebellions lead to the fall of his government. 1842 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Daguerreotype starts to be used in Portugal two years after its invention in France and is mostly used in commercial portrait lithographs. The oldest ones still existing in Portugal reproduce the Palace (Paços) of Coimbra University in 1842. The University is at the time the major centre for the dissemination of scientific knowledge. 1842 - 1846 Germany Rediscovering The Past The Egyptologist Karl Richard Lepsius is appointed director of an expedition to Egypt by Friedrich Wilhelm IV. 1843 Romania Fine And Applied Arts Carol Popp de Szathmari, the most important Romanian photographer of the 19th century (born in Cluj, Transylvania), moves to Bucharest, where he opens a photo studio. 1843 Austria Reforms And Social Changes Gas lighting is installed on the streets of Vienna. 1843 Italy Travelling First bathing establishment created in Rimini. 1843 Greece Fine And Applied Arts The School of the Fine Arts becomes a five-year higher education institution under its director, the architect Lissandros Kautantzoglou. 1843 Egypt Cities And Urban Spaces Muhammad Sharif Pasha builds the Sharif Pasha Palace situated on Kirdassi Street, off Hasan alAkbar Street, in Cairo. The Pasha held a number of important posts during the reigns of Muhammad ‘Ali and his successors. 1843 - 1851 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Publication of Romanceiro Português by Almeida Garrett (1799–1854), a two-volume compilation of popular folktales. Almeida Garrett aimed at the creation of a national literature inspired by local and regional traditions. 1843 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Friedrich Gottlob commodifies paper production (the mass production of cheap paper). 1843 Turkey Economy And Trade The first successful attempt to open a modern bank in the Empire. Smyrna Bank is established by foreign merchants (English, French, Austrian, Dutch, Russian, American, Italian, Danish, Spanish and Greek) under the Swedish Consulate in Izmir in order to diminish their dependence on other merchants and bankers. It is closed in the same year for operating without permission. 1844 Morocco Political Context The Battle of Isly is fought on 14 August 1844 between the Moroccan army employing an archaic strategy against professional soldiers trained in the Napoleonic campaigns and armed with batteries of light guns. The battle ended with the defeat of the Moroccans. The consequences of this defeat were grave for Morocco. It was the first time the country had lost a battle in more than two centuries, and it showed Mulay ‘Abd al-Rahman just how weak his army was. 1844 Serbia Political Context Serbia’s oldest museum, Museum Serbski, now the National Museum in Belgrade, is founded by the Minister of Education Jovan Sterija Popović. 1844 - 1846 Spain Economy And Trade British interests in raw material – iron and coal – lead to the foundation of the iron and steel industry in Bilbao and Santander and industrial exploitation of the coal mines in Asturias. 1844 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Publication of the novel Eurico,O Presbítero by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77). The story takes place during the period of the Arab invasion of Visigoth Hispania, led by Tarik in 711. 1844 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Frei Luís de Sousa, by Almeida Garrett. A romantic drama on the myth of King Sebastian, killed in the Battle of Alcacer Quibir, Morocco, in 1578. The myth of a disappeared king who will return to regain freedom and independence for his people underlies the plot together with the extreme love of Brother Luís de Sousa for his country. 1844 Portugal Economy And Trade Foundation of the National Tobacco Company in Xabregas, Lisbon. Following the 18th-century tendency, the profits of tobacco manufacturing and trade became the major source of revenue for oligarchic businessmen (known as the Caixas) seeking its control. The monopoly was rented out by the state, usually on a triennial base. 1844 Germany Reforms And Social Changes The first Proletariat uprising, the Weber Rebellion, witnesses 3,000 weavers in Silesia protesting against inhumane working conditions and exploitation. The uprising is quashed by the Prussian military – which murders them all. 1844 Germany Reforms And Social Changes First proletarian uprising: 3000 weavers in Silesia are protesting against the inhumane working conditions and their exploitation. They are all being killed by the Prussian military. 1844 Turkey Economy And Trade Monetary reform. Ottomans accept bimetallism. Lira, mecidiye and kuruş become official units. 100 kuruş are equal to one Ottoman lira. Silver mecidiyes equal to 20 kuruş are issued. 1844 Turkey Travelling June–July: Sultan Abdülmecid visits İzmit, Bursa, Gallipoli and the Aegean Islands. 1845 France The First electric telegraph in France between Paris and Rouen. Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 1845 - 1852 United Kingdom Migrations The Great Famine, or “Irish Potato Famine” as it is known, is a period of huge significance in Irish national history, not least because the country lost about a quarter of its population: a million people died from starvation and disease and another million emigrated. A number of factors – including absentee landlords, land acquisitions, the corn laws, anti-Catholic sentiment and crop failures due to “potato blight” – brought about the famine at a time when around two-fifths of the population were reliant solely on potatoes. 1846 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Ahmad Pasha Bey promulgates a decree freeing all black slaves in the country. Everyone born in Tunisia is declared free regardless of their parents’ origins. 1846 Tunisia Travelling Ahmad Pasha Bey is received by King Louis Philippe at the Tuileries Palace. He stays at the Élysée Palace. He visits the parliament, the Hôtel des invalids, Napoleon’s tomb and the Palace of Versailles. 1846 - 1856 Tunisia Travelling A period of intense diplomatic activity between the Regency of Tunis and Western governments, which sees 20 diplomatic or consular agencies in Europe and the East represent the regency. 1846 Romania Economy And Trade The rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia, Mihail Sturdza and Gheorghe Bibescu, sign a convention that stipulates the abolishment of the customs between the two countries. The convention becomes effective in January 1847. 1846 Egypt Travelling Ibrahim Pasha is received with respect and curiosity when he visits western Europe. 1846 Portugal Economy And Trade Merger of Banco de Lisboa and the investment company Companhia Confiança Nacional (1844–46) creating Banco de Portugal, which by 1887 shares the right to issue banknotes with other institutions. By 1891, Banco de Portugal becomes the sole issuer of bank notes for the mainland, the Azores and Madeira. 1846 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Premiere of the opera La damnation de Faust by Hector Berlioz. 1846 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes A gendarme organisation is formed. 1846 Turkey Travelling May: Sultan Abdülmecid visits Varna. 1847 - 1848 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Following creation of, in the Regency of Tunis, the first mail-distribution system, the first aerial telegraph system is inaugurated connecting the Bardo, official headquarters of the Bey’s government, with Tunis and La Goulette. 1847 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The construction of a road to link Wallachia and Transylvania, crossing through the Predeal Pass in the Southern Carpathians, is begun during the reign of Prince Gheorghe Bibescu. 1847 Austria Reforms And Social Changes Foundation of the Academy of Science in Vienna. 1847 - 1848 Italy Great Inventions Of The 19th Century First Italian telegraph line (Florence–Pisa–Livorno). 1847 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century American John Lawrence Smith, an agricultural chemist and mineralogist in Ottoman employ, demonstrates the electric telegraph invented by Samuel Morse in an elaborate presentation to Sultan Abdülmecid and his officials. The sultan bestows on Morse the prestigious Nishan-ı İftihar (Order of Glory of the Empire), Morse’s first official honour. 1847 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes September: First government secondary schools (rüşdiyye mektebi) are established. 1847 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Publication of the first government yearbook (salnâme). 1848 - 1849 Romania Political Context Revolution in the Romanian countries: in Wallachia and Moldavia revolutionaries demand their countries’ right to self-determination, while in Transylvania Romanians want equal rights to those of the Hungarians and Germans. 1848 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The premiere at the National Theatre in Iaşi of the first Romanian operetta, Baba Hârca, with a script by poet Matei Millo and music composed by Alexandru Flechtenmacher. 1848 Lebanon Travelling Established by Congregational and Presbyterian American missionaries, the National Evangelical Church of Beirut is the oldest and largest of nine congregations situated outside Beirut. 1848 Austria Reforms And Social Changes Silesian Deputy Hans Kudlich introduces legislation to abolish the enforced servitude of peasants in the Reichstag. 1848 - 1849 Austria Political Context Revolution in Austria-Hungary and northern Italy. 1848 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Donizetti dies and Verdi remains the only heir to the Italian melodrama, which is increasingly identified with the Risorgimento movement, becoming a “sound track” of the Italian fight for independence and unification. 1848 - 1849 Italy Political Context Uprisings in different parts of Italy demand constitutional rule and national unification. In Rome and Venice, short-lived republics are proclaimed. King Carlo Alberto (Kingdom of Sardinia) grants a constitution and wages war against the Austrian Empire, but he is defeated. 1848 Serbia Political Context The Serbian uprising against the Austrian monarchy sees the formation of Srpsko Vojvodstvo (the Serbian Duchy). Stevan Knićanin-Vojvoda (military commander) commands Serbian volunteers during the Hungarian Revolution (1848–49). 1848 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The first railway in Spain is built between Barcelona and Mataró for the transport of goods and passengers. The first railway built by the Spaniards had been built in Cuba in 1837 linking Havana with Güines. 1848 - 1856 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Boavista gas factory, owned by Companhia Lisbonense de Iluminação a Gás, begins to operate Lisbon's lightning network. Fearing people's reaction to a gas factory in an urban area, a styled façade is erected in 1856 to disguise it. 1848 France Fine And Applied Arts The "special national school for design, mathematics, architecture and ornamental sculpture applied to the industrial arts", which succeeds the Royal school of design founded in the 18th century, becomes the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs in 1877. 1848 France Political Context Revolution of February 1848: Louis-Philippe abdicates and the Republic is proclaimed. 1848 - 1852 France Political Context During the Second Republic a number of social reforms take place, including universal male suffrage and the abolition of slavery. In December 1848 Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (grand-nephew of Napoleon I) takes over as president of the Republic and reverts to a more conservative political position. He sets up an authoritarian regime by coup d'état (December 1851), and declares himself emperor in 1852. 1848 Germany Political Context The German National Assembly meets in Frankfurt. 1848 Germany Political Context Establishment of the first parliament in German history (at the Paulskirche, Frankfurt am Main), and elaboration of the German Imperial Constitution. 1848 - 1849 Germany Political Context The Pre-March Revolution involves a series of protests, gatherings and disturbances, but by July 1849 the Bundes troops are victorious and the revolution fails. 1848 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels publish the Communist Manifesto. 1848 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Liberal regimes, now with seats in government, herald a series of liberal reforms in all German states. After riots in Berlin, Prussian King Frederick William IV promises liberal and national reforms. 1848 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces Ebniye Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Buildings) issued. 1848 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The earliest Turkish textbook on chemistry, Usul-i Kimya (Elements of chemistry), is written by Mehmed Emin Derviş Paşa, a graduate of the Military Engineering School in Istanbul, based on the chemistry books he used during his studies in the École des Mines in Paris. 1849 - 1850 Austria Migrations The revolutionary General Józef Zachariasz Bem flees Austria for the Ottoman Empire along with 6,000 Hungarian soldiers. He becomes a Turkish General and in 1850 suppresses a Muslim pogrom against the Christian minority in Aleppo. 1849 Portugal Economy And Trade The Tribunal de Contas (Supreme Audit Institution), the independent financial control department, is separated from the financial administration. The public accounts are verified by the Tribunal de Contas and approved by Parliament. 1849 Germany Political Context The German National Assembly approves the Constitution of the German Empire. 1849 Germany Political Context The Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm IV refuses the German Imperial Crown. 1849 Germany Reforms And Social Changes Popular movements in Saxony, Baden and the Pfalz attempt to put into effect the Constitution of the Empire, but they are defeated by Prussian troops. 1849 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes The Teachers’ Seminary is founded in İstanbul. 1849 Turkey Rediscovering The Past English archaeologist and politician Austen Henry Layard (1817–94) publishes Nineveh and its Remains. 1850 Romania Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion January: the birth of Mihai Eminescu, who is considered to be the most important Romanian poet of the 19th century. 1850 - 1860 France Economy And Trade Foundation of numerous banks: the Crédit Industriel et Commercial (1859), the Credit Lyonnais (1863) and the Société générale (1864). 1850 France Migrations First wave of Italian immigrants to France. 1850 - 1860 France Rediscovering The Past Excavations of the French scholar, archaeologist and Egyptologist Auguste Mariette (1821–81) in Egypt. 1850 Austria Travelling Archduke Maximilian visits Asia Minor and Egypt. 1850 - 1855 Italy Fine And Applied Arts The painters of the School of Posillipo (Naples) develop a new style of more natural observation of landscapes and everyday life. 1850s - 1860s Italy Travelling Mountaineering on the Alps becomes a sport and tourism activity. Local people had always climbed mountains. Since the end of the 18th century, scientists had started exploring the Alps for scientific purposes (Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786). In 1857, Irish mountaineer John Ball starts climbing the Dolomites and writing guidebooks about them. 1850s United Kingdom Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Britain also holds a stake in the development of railways in the Near East. Egypt, as part of a global transport network and under British sponsorship, has a railway network before Norway does. 1850s United Kingdom Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The Crimean War brings thousands of British soldiers to Constantinople. After the war, certain innovations can be traced back to it – such as beards! There is a craze for things all things Turkish; the Turkish commander even becomes something of a folk hero in Britain. 1850 Spain Fine And Applied Arts First photography of Arab monuments such as the Alhambra and the Great Mosque of Córdoba. The development of photography sheds new light on these monuments and these first photographs are important documents on Arab remains in Spain. 1850 - 1860s Spain Fine And Applied Arts Rafael Contreras begins to make models from the Alhambra that are shown in international exhibitions and acquired by many museums and schools of design. The models are used as examples of wall decoration in the Alhambresque style. 1850 Spain Rediscovering The Past First photography of the Islamic monuments and remains in Spain such as the Great Mosque of Córdoba and the Alhambra palace. 1850 France Fine And Applied Arts A Burial At Ornans by the Realist painter Gustave Courbet. 1851 United Kingdom Rediscovering The Past When the Great Exhibition of All Nations opens in London, as well as showcasing technological progress, it also exposes the public to Egyptian, Mesopotamian and other ancient cultures, thus fostering an appetite for museums. 1851 Romania International Exhibitions Wallachia and Moldavia participate in the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations, organised at the Crystal Palace in London. Their products are exhibited in the Ottoman pavilion. 1851 - 1853 Italy Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Verdi composes the so-called popular trilogy (Rigoletto, Il trovatore and La traviata), consolidating his fame and reaching full musical and dramatical maturity. 1851 Greece International Exhibitions Greece is represented by a small stand at the Great Exhibition in London among the Levantine states. 1851 United Kingdom International Exhibitions At the Great Exhibition of this year are some examples of Islamic design influenced by Owen Jones, who had “discovered” Al-Andalus (Andalusian) Islamic architecture. Jones was brother-in-law to the architect J. W. Wild who designed St Mark’s Church in Alexandria. 1851 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century While the Barcelona–Mataró railway is under construction, another line is in progress between Madrid and Aranjuez, opened in 1851, and a third between Langreo and Gijón, in Asturias. By the end of the 19th century most Spanish cities will be linked by train. 1851 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Lendas e Narrativas published by Alexandre Herculano (1810–77), a collection of historical short stories set in the context of medieval times and the “Reconquista” process, the Iberian Christian military movement to recover Muslim-occupied territories (10th–15th centuries). 1851 Portugal Economy And Trade Launch of an ambitious plan of modernisation and the stable Regeneration period mostly led by Minister Fontes Pereira de Melo (1819–87) (and named Fontism after him) Infrastructure building, industrial production and business laws are promoted. Porto wine production and trade thrives and exports increase until the 1860s. 1851 Portugal International Exhibitions At “The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations“ in London, Portugal shows 1,293 products from almost all the regions. 1851 Germany International Exhibitions The First World Fair is opened by Prince Albert in London. 1851 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The Ottoman steamship company Şirket-i Hayriyye is founded. It provides regular and rapid transportation from Istanbul to points along the Bosporus, replacing the oar-drawn kayıks that had monopolised this traffic since the 18th century. 1851 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes Ottoman Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Danış) opens. 1852 Italy Political Context Cavour (Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, 1810–61), the architect of the diplomatic strategies that allowed Italian unification, becomes prime minister of the Kingdom of Sardinia (he will remain prime minister until his death). 1852 Austria Reforms And Social Changes Enactment of a code for Craft Guild regulations offers workers some protection in the Austrian monarchy. 1852 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 13 December: Under the framework of the Regeneration modernisation, the adoption of the decimal metric system based on the legal mètre of France is decreed by Queen Maria II. This decree establishes a ten-year deadline for its full enforcement, but the whole process will take longer than that. 1852 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes Ato Adicional de 1852 (Additional Act) abolishes the death penalty for political crimes, which had not been enforced since 1834. In 1867, in the reign of King Luís I, the abolition of the death penalty is extended to all kinds of crime, except for those under military jurisdiction. Only in 1911 will total abolition be proclaimed by the Republican regime. 1852 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes The steamship company Şirket-i Hayriyye is founded. 1852 Turkey Rediscovering The Past A museum of ancient costumes (Elbise-i Atika) is opened in Hippodrome (İstanbul) where old costumes of Janissaries are exhibited on mannequins. 1853 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 14 February: installation of the first electric telegraph lines in the Romanian territories, connecting Iaşi with Cernăuţi. 1853 United Arab Emirates (Sharjah) Political Context A Treaty of Maritime Peace in Perpetuity is concluded between Britain and the Trucial Coast rulers. Britain assumes the right to police maritime peace and commits to protecting the sheikhdoms from external interference and attack. 1853 - 1856 Greece Political Context The Crimean War starts in October 1853. On one side is the Russian Empire and on the other the Ottoman Empire, the British Empire, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia. Greece participates with a volunteer corps of 1,000 men as one of Russia’s few allies. 1853 Spain Migrations The ban on emigration to America is lifted. Under the Constitution of 1869 free emigration for all the inhabitants is recognised on payment of a fee, which remains until 1873. 1853 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 1 July: Portugal starts to use the first adhesive postal stamps on letters, postcards and parcels, in the reign of Queen Mary II. Bearing the Queen’ s effigy they are inspired by the first British stamp. 1853 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Publication of Victor Hugo’s Les Châtiments. 1853 - 1856 Turkey Political Context War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire and its allies France, UK and Piedmont-Savoy. The Crimean War is a consequence of rivalry over the Eastern Question and France’s support of Catholic claims and Russia’s support of Orthodox claims to control the holy sites in Jerusalem. Russia seeks to exploit Ottoman political weakness to gain diplomatic rights for Orthodox subjects of the Empire. Peace established by the Treaty of Paris (1856). 1853 Germany Economy And Trade Levi Strauss & Co founds the first company to manufacture blue jeans. 1853 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces Antun Bey Najjar, a merchant who made his fortune in Constantinople, builds Khan Antun Bey in 1853. It becomes a great business centre and the building is used by many institutions such as Beirut’s foreign consulates, the Ottoman administration, postal services, merchants’ offices and Beirut’s first bank, Imperial Ottoman. 1853 - 1856 Turkey Migrations The Crimean War causes an exodus of the Crimean Tatars, about 200,000 of whom move to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of immigration. 1854 Tunisia Travelling A contingent of the Tunisian army is called upon to participate alongside the Ottoman Empire, France and England in the Crimean War. 1854 Romania Great Inventions Of The 19th Century 20 August: inauguration of the first railway of Romania, linking Baziaș to Oravița (in Banat). Used at first to transport coal, it was opened for passenger transportation in 1856. In the United Principalities, the first railway line, built by the British company J.T. Barkley and J. Staniforth, was inaugurated 31 October 1869. 1854 Italy Fine And Applied Arts Leopoldo Alinari, with his brothers Romualdo and Giuseppe, opens in Florence one of the first photography workshope – Fratelli Alinari. 1854 United Kingdom Political Context Russia’s expansion to the Black Sea and the Caucasus encroach on, seize and annex Ottoman possessions. Britain and France support Ottoman resistance, targeting the Russian naval base in Crimea. Britain provides military and naval support to the Ottoman armed force. 1854 Austria Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The Semmering Railway is the first mainline railway to pass through mountainous territory. 1854 Egypt Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Sa‘id Pasha’s accession to the Viceroyalty of Egypt provides French businessman Ferdinand de Lesseps new impulse to develop the Suez Canal. 1854 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Heinrich Göbel invents the light bulb. 1854 Turkey Economy And Trade Ottoman Empire obtains its first foreign loan. 1854 Turkey Rediscovering The Past English amateur archaeologist Frank Calvert (1828–1908) begins excavations in Troy. 1854 Turkey Political Context The Tanzimat Council appoints a City Ordering Commission (Intizam-ı Şehir Heyeti), comprising Ottoman and foreign residents, charged with developing new regulation to transform the structure of Instanbul into a municipal government. It recommends establishment of a commission to enforce urban regulations and improve the city's physical make-up, financed through a separate tax structure. 1855 - 1856 Romania Reforms And Social Changes In Moldavia (22 December 1855) and then in Wallachia (20 February 1856) a law for the emancipation of the gypsy slaves of private owners is passed. Gypsies belonging to the church and to the state had already been liberated. 1855 France International Exhibitions The first World Fair/Expo (Exposition universelle) of industrial products takes place at the ChampsElysées, Paris, from 15 May to 15 November. More than five million visitors attend and 25 states and their colonies are represented. 1855 France Travelling From 1855, the spa towns of eastern France are developed: at Vittel, and at Contrexéville near Plombieres-les-Bains in the Pyrenees, where Napoleon III stays. 1855 Lebanon Reforms And Social Changes A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district). 1855 Italy Fine And Applied Arts The Caffé Michelangelo in Florence becomes a meeting place for artists and republican intellectuals close to Giuseppe Mazzini, in opposition to academic and official environments. 1855 Italy Rediscovering The Past Inauguration of the Egyptian Museum in Florence. The bulk of its holdings are the items collected by Ippolito Rossellini during the 1828–29 Franco-Tuscan expedition to Egypt, together with the Egyptian antiquities that the Medici family had collected during the 18th century. 1855 Italy Political Context The Kingdom of Sardinia participates in the Crimean war as part of the Anglo-French alliance against Russia. 1855 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The railways law, Ley General de Caminos de Hierro (Law of the Iron Roads) establishes principles for the railway and its public and private development. It specifies a rail width that is wider than the European rail. Its continued use still causes problems for rail connections between Spain and France today. 1855 Spain Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The government introduces a law establishing the telegraphic network in Spanish territory, marking the beginning of telecommunications in Spain. Its objective is to link every important city and the provincial capitals. 1855 Portugal International Exhibitions Portugal is present at “Exposition Universelle des Produits de l’Agriculture, de l’Industrie et des Beaux-Arts”, with 441 stands, exhibiting agricultural products and commodities. King Pedro V (1837– 61) has a pivotal role in boosting the national presence. 1855 Lebanon Cities And Urban Spaces A school is built by the Jesuits in Ghazir (Kisruwan district). 1855 Turkey Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The earliest railway line within the Empire is opened between Costanta and Cernovoda (in presentday Romania). 1855 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 9 September: Telegraphic communication is introduced within the empire. 1855 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Ahmed Cevdet Paşa, historian, jurist and conservative Tanzimat reformer, completes the first volumes of Târih-I Cevdet (History of Cevdet), which deals with Ottoman history, 1774–1826. 1856 Romania Political Context At the Congress of Paris peace conference, Wallachia and Moldavia are put under the collective guarantee of the Great Powers (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France), while remaining under Ottoman sovereignty. The Russian protectorate over the Romanian countries is ended. Moldavia receives the southeast of Bessarabia. 1856 Romania Economy And Trade The internationalisation of the Danube through the Treaty of Paris has a positive influence on the development of Romanian commerce. 1856 Morocco Political Context In 1856 a treaty is signed, initiated by Britain in order to strengthen its influence over Morocco and to maintain its naval supremacy in the Mediterranean, which hugely undermines Moroccan sovereignty. This treaty wrested control over the extent of European penetration away from the governing institution of Morocco the Makhzen. The advantages gained by European traders, combined with their superior technique and the quantity of capital behind them, enabled then to monopolise most of the sea trade and to reduce Moroccan players to mere intermediaries. 1856 - 1860 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces Ildefonso Cerdá designs the "extension" of Barcelona in 1859. The orthogonal design of the streets creates a new neighbourhood: El Ensanche/L’Eixample. The development of wide streets such as Diagonal or Paseo de Gracia allows a new construction style, Modernismo/Modernisme, with buildings by Antonio Gaudí and Puig i Cadafalch. 1856 Portugal Rediscovering The Past The Portugaliae Monumenta Historica is published. Acknowledged as a historian, Alexandre Herculano is commissioned by Academia das Ciências de Lisboa to compile this collection of old documents that are at risk of disappearing and being dispersed throughout convent archives. He undertook this task in 1853–54. 1856 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Inauguration of the first Portuguese railway between Lisbon and Carregado, 36,454 km north of Lisbon, by King Pedro V and innumerable guests, transported in 14 wooden carriages pulled by two locomotives. The first train trip lasts 40 minutes. A steam engine is adapted to move the locomotives. 1856 Turkey Political Context 28 February: Under diplomatic pressure, the Sublime Porte is forced to declare the Imperial Rescript of Reforms (Islahat Fermanı), giving the empire admission to the Concert of Europe. The Rescript states the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims before law, the right of non-Muslims to be admitted to government and military service, and abolition of the poll tax and freedom in education for nonMuslims. 1856 Germany Rediscovering The Past A Neanderthal is discovered and examined by Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen. Rudolf Virchow, friends with the famous archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann, claims that the Neanderthal is not prehistoric man. He is wrong. 1856 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces İstimlak Nizamnamesi (Regulation for Expropriation) issued. 1856 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces Fire in Aksaray district, İstanbul, destroys more than 650 buildings and is a major turning point in the history of İstanbul’s urban form. Italian architect Luigi Storari is appointed to carry out the rebuilding of the area, which is to conform to the new pattern: hence it is to be regular with straight and wide streets. 1856 Turkey Economy And Trade The Ottoman Bank is established by English capitalists with capital of ₤500,000 (equivalent to about US$52 million in 2007). Established on a small scale, the bank becomes an imperial bank by 1863. 1856 Turkey Political Context 30 March: The Paris Treaty marks the end of the Crimean War (1853–56); the Ottoman Empire is admitted into the Concert of Europe. 1857 Tunisia Reforms And Social Changes Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration of Rights” in 11 points. The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law, etc. 1857 Tunisia Political Context Promulgation of the Fundamental Pact by Muhammad Pasha Bey: a “Declaration of Rights” in 11 points. The pact guarantees Tunisians and also foreigners their civil and political rights, security of persons and properties, equality before the law, etc. 1857 Romania Economy And Trade March: the first oil refinery in Romania is built by Teodor Mehedinţeanu at Râfov, Prahova. 1857 France Travelling Development of resorts and the creation of the seaside resort of Arcachon on the Atlantic in southwest France, which is inaugurated by Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugénie. 1857 France Visit by the Ambassador of Persia, Ferouk Kahn, to Napoleon III. Travelling 1857 Austria Travelling Sidi Muhammad Bey of Tunis presents a pair of pistols to Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria. 1857 Spain Reforms And Social Changes The Ley de Instrucción Pública (Law of Public Education) establishes three stages of education: primary, secondary and university. Primary school is compulsory for all children (boys and girls) providing the basis for combatting illiteracy. 1857 Portugal Rediscovering The Past Creation of the Museum of the Geological Commission currently called the Museum of Geology of Portugal. It is established under the auspices of the Geological Commission from specimens collected by the Portuguese pioneers of geology Carlos Ribeiro, Nery Delgado, Pereira da Costa, Paul Choffat and others. 1857 Portugal Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The public telegraph service becomes available, one year after its first official connection between the Royal Palace and the Parliament. The Morse telegraph system is also used in the international connection to the telegraphic network in Spain, on the border of Elvas and Badajoz. 1857 France Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Publication of Gustave Flaubert’s novel Madame Bovary. 1857 France Fine And Applied Arts The Angelus, by the Realist painter Jean-François Millet. 1857 - 1859 Germany Economy And Trade The Great Depression, which starts in the United states with the panic of 1857, represents the first global economic crisis. 1857 Turkey Migrations Ottoman Refugee Code/Immigration Law is issued. Forced migrants-turned-settlers are given 70 donums (about 17 acres) to start farming. 1857 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes March: The Ministry of Public Education is founded. 1858 Tunisia Cities And Urban Spaces Under the reign of Muhammad Pasha Bey a major reform is carried out: the capital, Tunis, is established as a municipal town and a city council is elected. Further municipal towns were created in other parts of the country: Sfax, Sousse and Kairouan among others. 1858 Romania Political Context 19 August: the Ottoman Empire, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Piedmont, the UK and France sign the Paris Convention marking the creation of the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, with separate rulers, legislative and executive powers, and only two institutions in common (Supreme Court of Appeals and central legislative commission). The convention replaces the Organic Regulations, becoming the new constitution of the United Principalities. 1858 Romania Reforms And Social Changes Through the Paris Convention signed in August 1858 by Russia, the UK, France, Piedmont, Prussia, Austria and the Ottoman Empire the privileges and ranks of the Romanian aristocracy in Moldavia and Wallachia are abolished. 1858 France Travelling Development of pilgrimages in France, in particular to Lourdes, thanks to faster modes of transport such as rail. 1858 Italy International Exhibitions An industrial exhibition is held in Turin. 1858 - 1859 Greece Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Telephone communication is established between the cities of Piraeus and Syros (underwater), and Athens and Patras. 1858 Austria Economy And Trade A unified silver currency the Guilder (Gulden) is introduced throughout the Austrian-Hungarian Empire. 1858 Spain Cities And Urban Spaces Opening of the Isabel II channel, the water system of Madrid diverting water from the river Lozoya to the new fountain in San Bernardo street in the centre of Madrid. 1858 Germany Political Context King Wilhelm I – later Kaiser (Emperor) of the Second Empire – assumes his regency. 1858 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes 6 June: Promulgation of the Land Law regulating private property in agricultural areas. 1859 Italy Reforms And Social Changes The Casati Law is passed in the Kingdom of Sardinia (and in 1860 extended to the rest of Italy) that defines the organisation of the educational system, from primary school to university. The system is aimed more at educating the ruling elite than the illiterate masses. Humanities are given a much higher status than scientific and technical education. 1859 - 1860 Morocco Political Context The Tétouan war of 6 February 1860: the Spanish, seeking to extend the borders of Ceuta and Melilla, exploit a raid by a neighbouring tribe against a redoubt built outside the walls of Ceuta to launch a major military action and occupy Tétouan. To end the occupation of Tétouan, the Moroccan state was obliged to pay a significant sum (20 million douros), which it was unable to do. As a result, it was forced to seek a foreign loan that it was able to pay back using customs revenues. 1859 Serbia Political Context The Hatišerif (Turkish edict) is issued in 1838, allowing the Sovjet (Council) to limit the powers of Prince Miloš Obrenović. Unwilling to accept this however, Miloš abdicates and leaves Serbia in 1839. Prince Mihailo Obrenović reigns for a short time before the Karađorđević Dynasty regains the Serbian throne in 1842. The 1858 Svetoandrejska skupština (Assembly convened on St Andrew’s Day) decides on a change of dynasty, overthrowing Prince Aleksandar Karađorđević and reinstating Miloš Obrenović. A 37-strong deputation from the Assembly, with a massive, heavily armed entourage, leaves Belgrade for Bucharest to bring the newly elected prince back to the country, marking the beginning of Miloš’ second, but short-lived reign, which ends when he dies in 1860. 1859 - 1860 Spain Political Context War declared on Morocco. Battles of Castillejos (Fnidq) and Wad-Ras. A peace agreement is signed with the Moroccan Sultan leaving Tetouan under Spanish rule. 1859 Germany Great Inventions Of The 19th Century Johann Phillipp Reis invents the telephone. 1859 Turkey Cities And Urban Spaces Sokaklara Dair Nizamname (Regulation for Streets) issued. 1859 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion İbrahim Şinasi completes his stage comedy Şâir Evlenmesi (Marriage of a Poet), the first theatre play written by an Ottoman Turkish author. 1859 Austria Political Context Defeat of the Austrians by a French and Sardinian Army at the Battle of Solferino on 24 June sees terrible losses on both sides. 1859 Austria Political Context At the Peace of Zürich (10 November) Austria cedes Lombardy, but not Venetia, to Napoleon III; in turn, Napoleon hands the province over to the Kingdom of Sardinia. 1860 Tunisia Great Inventions Of The 19th Century The restoration of the Aqueduct of Zaghouan is completed, running water arrives in Tunis. 1860 Romania Fine And Applied Arts 7 November: on the initiative of painter Gheorghe Panaitescu-Bardasare, a School of Fine Arts and an art gallery are founded in Iaşi. 1860 France Travelling First trip by Napoleon III to Algeria; the second will take place in 1865. 1860 Italy Cities And Urban Spaces The unification of Italy leads to urban expansion outside the old city walls, which have lost their defensive value. Medieval urban buildings are often demolished in order to build monumental architecture. 1860 Italy Political Context The right to vote is reserved for a small elite of men who have certain levels of income and education: only 2.2% of the Italians can vote. 1860 - 1865 Greece Fine And Applied Arts Both Nikolaos Gyzis and Nikiphoros Lytras win scholarships to the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Munich. 1860 Austria Migrations Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) is born in Moravia; he emigrates from Moravia to Vienna. 1860 Spain Fine And Applied Arts The Manises pottery begins to produce objects in lustreware. 1860 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Fine And Applied Arts The icon “Seven Holy Teachers” (Sedmochislenitzi) is painted by the most significant representative of Christian religious art in Macedonia, Dicho Krstevic Zograph, at the peak of his creativity. It represents the Slav missionaries Sts Cyril and Methodius and their disciples Clement, Nahum, Gorazd, Sabbas and Angelarij in a solo composition. His icons are distinguished by bright colour and baroque features. 1860 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion The birth in Prilep of the first Macedonian composer Atanas Badev (d. 1908). He studied music in Russia and was conductor of several school choirs and of the first city choir in Prilep. 1860 Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion Grigor Prlichev's epic poem "The Serdar", written in Greek, wins first prize at the annual poetry competition held in Athens. Prlichev (1830–93) was born in Ohrid. This prolific Macedonian poet and translator was a dedicated advocate of introducing the native spoken language in Macedonian schools. He was referred to as a second Homer, having translated the "Iliad" into the Macedonian language. 1860 Lebanon Political Context Yusuf Bek Butros Karam, a Lebanese Maronite born in 1823 fights in the 1860 civil war and leads a rebellion in 1866-67 against the Ottoman Empire’s rule in Mount Lebanon. His proclamations have been interpreted as an early expression of Lebanese nationalism. 1860 Lebanon Political Context A full-scale war erupts between Maronites and Druze. Napoleon III of France sends 7,000 troops to Beirut and helps impose a partition: Druze control of the territory is recognised as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites are forced into an enclave. This is ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861. 1860 Portugal Reforms And Social Changes Under the liberal educational reforms, Lyceu Nacional de Aveiro (Aveiro High School) is the first school in Portugal to occupy a building designed specifically for this function. Previously schools occupied existing buildings, often old convents. The school had been created as Colégio de Aveiro in 1848. 1860 Portugal Travelling Travelling became a great cultural and social phenomenon with Romanticism. The “Grand Tour” through the countries of the known world, namely around the Mediterranean, became a means of developing cultural and social skills. Travel became refined and even a simple journey to the countryside required such accessories as this travel case for meals. 1860 Turkey Reforms And Social Changes October: First private newspaper to be published by Turkish journalists,Tercüman-ı Ahvâl, published by Agah Efendi and İbrahim Şinasi. 1860 Turkey Music, Literature, Dance And Fashion October: Journalists İbrahim Şinasi and Agah Efendi publish the first private Muslim newspaper Tercümân-ı Ahvâl (Interpreter of Events).
